新发现和正在研究中的细胞凋亡蛋白抑制剂(综述)

自从杆状病毒中分离出凋亡蛋白抑制剂 (inhibitorofapoptosisproteins ,IAPs)后 ,发现的凋亡蛋白抑制剂的种类和数量逐渐增多。迄今为止 ,在人体新发现的IAPs有HIAP - 1(humanIAP -1)、HIAP - 2 (humanIAP - 2 )、XIAP(Xchromosome -likedIAP)、ML -IAP(melanocytesIAP)、Survivin和Livin等。对IAPs的发现、定位、结构、分布和作用等方面的研究进展进行介绍     

神经鞘磷脂合成酶2与阿霉素致乳腺癌细胞线粒体损伤的相关性

目的:探讨神经鞘磷脂合成酶2(SMS2)的表达与阿霉素(ADR)致乳腺癌细胞线粒体损伤的相关性.方法:采用过表达慢病毒感染法构建并筛选SMS2过表达的乳腺癌MCF-7细胞.CCK-8实验检测细胞对ADR的IC50值,选择适当浓度的ADR药物作用条件处理细胞后,使用MitoSOX试剂染色检测线粒体ROS水平,检测细胞内ATP水平以评估线粒体功能;电镜观察线粒体超微结构的异同;Western blot检测线粒体细胞色素C的释放水平和细胞凋亡相关蛋白Cleaved-PARP、Cleaved-Caspase 3、Bcl-2、Bax表达水平.结果:SMS2过表达的MCF-7细胞对ADR的IC50值为(2.42±0.073)μmol/L,而对照组细胞IC50值为(0.62±0.036)μmol/L(P<0.01).2μmol/L ADR处理细胞24 h后,SMS2过表达的MCF-7细胞内线粒体ROS水平降低(P<0.05);细胞内ATP水平增加(P<0.05);电镜观察示线粒体结构性损伤减轻;线粒体细胞色素C的释放水平降低(P<0.05);抗凋亡蛋白Bcl-2表达增加,促凋亡蛋白Cleaved-PARP、Cleaved-Caspase 3、Bax的表达减少(P<0.05).结论:SMS2过表达可能通过减轻ADR对乳腺癌MCF-7细胞线粒体的损伤作用,进而抑制细胞凋亡.     

单纯疱疹病毒蛋白ICP34.5的抗凋亡功能探索

单纯疱疹病毒(HSV)是一种高感染率的人类DNA病毒,HSV进化出多种机制拮抗人体免疫系统的抗病毒免疫,其中抗凋亡是HSV的重要机制之一.有多种HSV病毒蛋白具有抗凋亡功能.该论文通过多种凋亡表型证明ICP34.5也具有抗凋亡功能.进一步实验确定ICP34.5是抑制了线粒体及其上游的凋亡通路.ICP34.5通过拮抗宿主细胞凋亡促进了病毒自身的复制.     

线粒体外膜通道蛋白VDAC与靶向肿瘤细胞凋亡

VDAC(Voltage-dependent anion channel)是位于线粒体外膜上的一种主要通道蛋白,参与线粒体内外物质和能量的运输,在线粒体与细胞其它部位的通讯中起重要调节作用.近年来研究发现,VDAC也是线粒体与其它蛋白质相互作用的功能结合位点,可与多种凋亡调节蛋白(如HK-Ⅰ/Ⅱ、Bcl-2家族蛋白、tubulin、MAP2/4等)以及非蛋白调节因子相互作用,参与调控细胞凋亡.因此,VDAC成为线粒体凋亡通路中一种关键的靶蛋白.本文对近年来VDAC在肿瘤细胞凋亡中的作用机制进行简要综述.     

雷洛昔芬通过调节端粒酶活性抑制Aβ所致神经细胞凋亡

目的:探讨雷洛昔芬是否具有类似于雌激素对转染了雌激素受体estrogen receptor(ER)α的PC12细胞有保护作用,即对抗淀粉样蛋白AB所致细胞凋亡及活化端粒酶活性.方法:在转染了雌激素受体ERα的PC12细胞(PCER)及转染了对照基因质粒的PC12细胞(PCCON)中分别添加不同的药物.用TUNEL染色法观察细胞凋亡情况;stretch PCR试剂盒分析端粒酶的活性.结果:在经过Aβ处理后的PCER中添加10-8 M雷洛昔芬与10-8雌激素后细胞凋亡数显著减少,而在PCCON中则无明显差异;雌激素和雷洛昔芬对PCER细胞显著促进其端粒酶活性,对PCCON 细胞无此作用.结论:雷洛昔芬与雌激素对有雌激素受体表达的PC12细胞均有活化端粒酶活性,抑制淀粉样蛋白Aβ诱发的细胞凋亡作用,表明雌激素和雷洛昔芬抑制Aβ所致细胞凋亡的作用是通过雌激素受体ER α来实现的.     

细胞应激条件下嗜热四膜虫线粒体膜电位变化研究

单细胞线虫纲原生动物四膜虫(Tetrahymena),在H2O2的诱导下可发生凋亡样死亡.另外,最新研究表明细胞中活性氧簇(ROS)的积累可有效地诱导细胞自噬途径的发生.通过流式细胞技术和荧光显微技术,检测了经饥饿和ROS诱导剂处理后,线粒体内膜电位变化及细胞内ROS的积累.此外,应用两种抗氧化剂氮乙酰半胱氨酸(NAC)和过氧化氢酶(Catalase)分别对四膜虫细胞进行处理,检测了在氧化应激条件下的抗氧化作用效果.结果表明,Oligomycin和Menadione可有效抑制线粒体膜电位的维持,从而导致细胞内ROS积累.同时,H2O2处理和饥饿处理可以导致嗜热四膜虫细胞线粒体膜电位丧失以及细胞质ROS积累.另外,N-acetylcystine和Catalase可有效地降低四膜虫细胞内ROS的积累,以及保持四膜虫细胞线粒体内膜电位,维持通透性.     

(R)-Roscovitine诱导Hela细胞凋亡的分子机制

以Hela细胞为模型,探讨细胞周期蛋白依赖性激酶抑制剂(R)-roscovitine对Hela细胞凋亡诱导的可能途径,进一步了解其诱导肿瘤细胞凋亡的分子机制.结果显示:(R)-roscovitine明显抑制Hela细胞的增殖,在17.5～140.0μmol.L-1浓度作用12,24,48h后,Hela细胞的增殖抑制率分别为8.48%～33.76%,25.19%～86.41%和47.90%～88.08%;典型凋亡的DNA ladder被诱导,且凋亡率随药物浓度的增加而升高;经半胱天冬酶-3(caspase-3)特异性抑制剂Ac-DEVD-CHO或半胱天冬酶泛抑制剂Z-VAD-FMK处理后,(R)-roscovitine对Hela细胞凋亡的诱导被抑制约20%,说明半胱天冬酶依赖的途径参与了(R)-roscovitine对Hela细胞凋亡的诱导;(R)-roscovitine诱导凋亡诱导因子(AIF)从线粒体释放细胞核中,且Ac-DEVD-CHO和Z-VAD-FMK没有抑制AIF的释放,这意味着(R)-roscovitine能够诱导Hela细胞凋亡,其机制是通过caspase与非caspase依赖两种途径.     

顺铂对Tca8113细胞线粒体以及内质网凋亡相关蛋白的影响

本文通过探讨顺铂对人舌鳞状细胞癌细胞Tca8113细胞线粒体与内质网凋亡蛋白的影响,探讨顺铂诱导Tca8113细胞发生凋亡的机制。体外培养Tca8113细胞,顺铂(CDDP)作用后,通过MTT检测Tca8113细胞增值率;Western Blotting检测顺铂对Tca811细胞线粒体凋亡以及内质网凋亡相关蛋白表达水平的影响。与对照组相比较,CDDP可以明显抑制Tca811细胞的存活率,差异有统计学意义(P﹤0.05);Western Blotting结果显示,顺铂可以明显的增加线凋亡相关蛋白Cleaved Caspase-3的表达水平。另外,CDDP可以增加线粒体凋亡相关蛋白Bax的表达,以及内质网凋亡相关蛋白CHOP的表达。顺铂可以诱导Tca8113细胞发生凋亡,其凋亡可能通过线粒体与内质网凋亡信号通路共同发挥作用。     

MdmX在Axin-p53信号通路中的调控机制

鼠双微体基因X(MdmX)是肿瘤抑制因子p53信号通路中重要的负调控蛋白,它能与p53直接结合,抑制p53的转录活性.体轴发育抑制因子Axin作为构架蛋白与p53及同源结构域互作蛋白激酶2(HIPK2)等相互作用形成复合物,诱导p53的转录活化,共同促进细胞的凋亡.本研究将MdmX引入Axin-p53信号通路的调控中,发现MdmX通过竞争Axin与p53的结合,抑制Axin诱导p53的转录激活.p53结合区域缺失的MdmX突变体MdmXΔp53则不能抑制Axin对p53的激活.这些实验结果为进一步深入研究Axin-p53信号通路在细胞凋亡及肿瘤发生发展中的作用提供了重要的理论依据.     

Bcl-2蛋白质家族调控细胞凋亡机制的研究进展

细胞凋亡是一种受基因调控的响应凋亡刺激的细胞程序性死亡方式.通过线粒体途径引发的凋亡主要由Bcl-2(B-cell lymphoma 2)蛋白质家族成员之间复杂的相互作用进行调控,然而科学界对其具体的相互作用模式一直存在争议.首先综述了近年来Bcl-2蛋白质家族成员之间相互作用的生物学机制,然后总结了细胞凋亡具有双稳性和该家族成员相互作用模式的数学模型,最后通过对目前流行的3种作用模式(即直接激活模式、间接激活模式、统一模式)进行数值模拟和分岔分析,认为统一模式是更合理的作用模式.以期能更好地理解病理细胞中可能存在的作用机制,从而为因凋亡异常引起的癌症、阿尔兹海默症等疾病的治疗和控制提供思路.     

DRP-1-mediated mitochondrial fragmentation during EGL-1-induced cell death in C. elegans

Genetic analyses in Caenorhabditis elegans have been instrumental in the elucidation of the central cell-death machinery, which is conserved from C. elegans to mammals. One possible difference that has emerged is the role of mitochondria. By releasing cytochrome c, mitochondria are involved in the activation of caspases in mammals. However, there has previously been no evidence that mitochondria are involved in caspase activation in C. elegans. Here we show that mitochondria fragment in cells that normally undergo programmed cell death during C. elegans development. Mitochondrial fragmentation is induced by the BH3-only protein EGL-1 and can be blocked by mutations in the bcl-2-like gene ced-9, indicating that members of the Bcl-2 family might function in the regulation of mitochondrial fragmentation in apoptotic cells. Mitochondrial fragmentation is independent of CED-4/Apaf-1 and CED-3/caspase, indicating that it occurs before or simultaneously with their activation. Furthermore, DRP-1/dynamin-related protein, a key component of the mitochondrial fission machinery, is required and sufficient to induce mitochondrial fragmentation and programmed cell death during C. elegans development. These results assign an important role to mitochondria in the cell-death pathway in C. elegans.     

Endonuclease G is an apoptotic DNase when released from mitochondria.

Nucleosomal fragmentation of DNA is a hallmark of apoptosis (programmed cell death), and results from the activation of nucleases in cells undergoing apoptosis. One such nuclease, DNA fragmentation factor (DFF, a caspase-activated deoxyribonuclease (CAD) and its inhibitor (ICAD)), is capable of inducing DNA fragmentation and chromatin condensation after cleavage by caspase-3 (refs 2,3,4). However, although transgenic mice lacking DFF45 or its caspase cleavage site have significantly reduced DNA fragmentation, these mice still show residual DNA fragmentation and are phenotypically normal. Here we report the identification and characterization of another nuclease that is specifically activated by apoptotic stimuli and is able to induce nucleosomal fragmentation of DNA in fibroblast cells from embryonic mice lacking DFF. This nuclease is endonuclease G (endoG), a mitochondrion-specific nuclease that translocates to the nucleus during apoptosis. Once released from mitochondria, endoG cleaves chromatin DNA into nucleosomal fragments independently of caspases. Therefore, endoG represents a caspase-independent apoptotic pathway initiated from the mitochondria.     

Structure of the apoptotic protease-activating factor 1 bound to ADP

Apoptosis is executed by caspases, which undergo proteolytic activation in response to cell death stimuli. The apoptotic protease-activating factor 1 (Apaf-1) controls caspase activation downstream of mitochondria. During apoptosis, Apaf-1 binds to cytochrome c and in the presence of ATP/dATP forms an apoptosome, leading to the recruitment and activation of the initiator caspase, caspase-9 (ref. 2). The mechanisms underlying Apaf-1 function are largely unknown. Here we report the 2.2-A crystal structure of an ADP-bound, WD40-deleted Apaf-1, which reveals the molecular mechanism by which Apaf-1 exists in an inactive state before ATP binding. The amino-terminal caspase recruitment domain packs against a three-layered alpha/beta fold, a short helical motif and a winged-helix domain, resulting in the burial of the caspase-9-binding interface. The deeply buried ADP molecule serves as an organizing centre to strengthen interactions between these four adjoining domains, thus locking Apaf-1 in an inactive conformation. Apaf-1 binds to and hydrolyses ATP/dATP and their analogues. The binding and hydrolysis of nucleotides seem to drive conformational changes that are essential for the formation of the apoptosome and the activation of caspase-9.     

Calpain的激活与鱼藤酮导致的细胞凋亡

在缺氧或呼吸链抑制剂存在条件下,细胞的呼吸链受到抑制,线粒体的功能受到直接干扰,细胞色素C通过线粒体的外膜特异性通道进入细胞浆内,启动了procaspase-3等一系列凋亡因子,细胞发生与线粒体相关的凋亡。另一方面,因线粒体的功能被抑制,细胞内的钙离子浓度升高,calpain被激活并裂解细胞膜蛋白及细胞内的生物化学分子,促进了细胞凋亡的发生。鱼藤酮作为线粒体呼吸链complexI的抑制剂可导致细胞凋亡,其凋亡途径不仅与caspase介导的机制有关,还有可能与calpain有关。     

Suppression of CED-3-independent apoptosis by mitochondrial betaNAC in Caenorhabditis elegans

To ensure cell survival, it is essential that the ubiquitous pro-apoptotic machinery is kept quiescent. As death is irreversible, cells must continually integrate developmental information with regulatory inputs to control the switch between repressing and activating apoptosis. Inappropriate activation or suppression of apoptosis can lead to degenerative pathologies or tumorigenesis, respectively. Here we report that Caenorhabditis elegans inhibitor of cell death-1 (ICD-1) is necessary and sufficient to prevent apoptosis. Loss of ICD-1 leads to inappropriate apoptosis in developing and differentiated cells in various tissues. Although this apoptosis requires CED-4, it occurs independently of CED-3--the caspase essential for developmental apoptosis--showing that these core pro-apoptotic proteins have separable roles. Overexpressing ICD-1 inhibits the apoptosis of cells that are normally programmed to die. ICD-1 is the beta-subunit of the nascent polypeptide-associated complex (betaNAC) and contains a putative caspase-cleavage site and caspase recruitment domain. It localizes primarily to mitochondria, underscoring the role of mitochondria in coordinating apoptosis. Human betaNAC is a caspase substrate that is rapidly eliminated in dying cells, suggesting that ICD-1 apoptosis-suppressing activity may be inactivated by caspases.     

Bid-deficient mice are resistant to Fas-induced hepatocellular apoptosis.

The protein Bid is a participant in the pathway that leads to cell death (apoptosis), mediating the release of cytochrome c from mitochondria in response to signals from 'death' receptors known as TNFR1/Fas on the cell surface. It is a member of the proapoptotic Bcd-2 family and is activated as a result of its cleavage by caspase 8, one of a family of proteolytic cell-death proteins. To investigate the role of Bid in vivo, we have generated mice deficient for Bid. We find that when these mice are injected with an antibody directed against Fas, they nearly all survive, whereas wild-type mice die from hepatocellular apoptosis and haemorrhagic necrosis. About half of the Bid-deficient animals had no apparent liver injury and showed no evidence of activation of the effector caspases 3 and 7, although the initiator caspase 8 had been activated. Other Bid-deficient mice survived with only moderate damage: all three caspases (8 and 37) were activated but their cell nuclei were intact and no mitochondrial cytochrome c was released. We also investigated the effects of Bid deficiency in cultured cells treated with anti-Fas antibody (hepatocytes and thymocytes) or with TNFalpha. (fibroblasts). In these Bid-/- cells, mitochondrial dysfunction was delayed, cytochrome c was not released, effector caspase activity was reduced and the cleavage of apoptosis substrates was altered. This loss-of-function model indicates that Bid is a critical substrate in vivo for signalling by death-receptor agonists, which mediates a mitochondrial amplification loop that is essential for the apoptosis of selected cells.     

Essential role of the mitochondrial apoptosis-inducing factor in programmed cell death

Programmed cell death is a fundamental requirement for embryogenesis, organ metamorphosis and tissue homeostasis. In mammals, release of mitochondrial cytochrome c leads to the cytosolic assembly of the apoptosome-a caspase activation complex involving Apaf1 and caspase-9 that induces hallmarks of apoptosis. There are, however, mitochondrially regulated cell death pathways that are independent of Apaf1/caspase-9. We have previously cloned a molecule associated with programmed cell death called apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF). Like cytochrome c, AIF is localized to mitochondria and released in response to death stimuli. Here we show that genetic inactivation of AIF renders embryonic stem cells resistant to cell death after serum deprivation. Moreover, AIF is essential for programmed cell death during cavitation of embryoid bodies-the very first wave of cell death indispensable for mouse morphogenesis. AIF-dependent cell death displays structural features of apoptosis, and can be genetically uncoupled from Apaf1 and caspase-9 expression. Our data provide genetic evidence for a caspase-independent pathway of programmed cell death that controls early morphogenesis.     

A conserved XIAP-interaction motif in caspase-9 and Smac/DIABLO regulates caspase activity and apoptosis

X-linked inhibitor-of-apoptosis protein (XIAP) interacts with caspase-9 and inhibits its activity, whereas Smac (also known as DIABLO) relieves this inhibition through interaction with XIAP. Here we show that XIAP associates with the active caspase-9-Apaf-1 holoenzyme complex through binding to the amino terminus of the linker peptide on the small subunit of caspase-9, which becomes exposed after proteolytic processing of procaspase-9 at Asp315. Supporting this observation, point mutations that abrogate the proteolytic processing but not the catalytic activity of caspase-9, or deletion of the linker peptide, prevented caspase-9 association with XIAP and its concomitant inhibition. We note that the N-terminal four residues of caspase-9 linker peptide share significant homology with the N-terminal tetra-peptide in mature Smac and in the Drosophila proteins Hid/Grim/Reaper, defining a conserved class of IAP-binding motifs. Consistent with this finding, binding of the caspase-9 linker peptide and Smac to the BIR3 domain of XIAP is mutually exclusive, suggesting that Smac potentiates caspase-9 activity by disrupting the interaction of the linker peptide of caspase-9 with BIR3. Our studies reveal a mechanism in which binding to the BIR3 domain by two conserved peptides, one from Smac and the other one from caspase-9, has opposing effects on caspase activity and apoptosis.     

Differential modulation of endotoxin responsiveness by human caspase-12 polymorphisms

Caspases mediate essential key proteolytic events in inflammatory cascades and the apoptotic cell death pathway. Human caspases functionally segregate into two distinct subfamilies: those involved in cytokine maturation (caspase-1, -4 and -5) and those involved in cellular apoptosis (caspase-2, -3, -6, -7, -8, -9 and -10). Although caspase-12 is phylogenetically related to the cytokine maturation caspases, in mice it has been proposed as a mediator of apoptosis induced by endoplasmic reticulum stress including amyloid-beta cytotoxicity, suggesting that it might contribute to the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. Here we show that a single nucleotide polymorphism in caspase-12 in humans results in the synthesis of either a truncated protein (Csp12-S) or a full-length caspase proenzyme (Csp12-L). The read-through single nucleotide polymorphism encoding Csp12-L is confined to populations of African descent and confers hypo-responsiveness to lipopolysaccharide-stimulated cytokine production in ex vivo whole blood, but has no significant effect on apoptotic sensitivity. In a preliminary study, we find that the frequency of the Csp12-L allele is increased in African American individuals with severe sepsis. Thus, Csp12-L attenuates the inflammatory and innate immune response to endotoxins and in doing so may constitute a risk factor for developing sepsis.