岩藻黄素降脂活性及其作用机制研究进展

岩藻黄素（Fucoxanthin）是海洋褐藻中主要的叶黄素类类胡萝卜素，也是褐藻中主要的降脂活性成分之一。岩藻黄素具有抗肿瘤、抗炎症、抗肥胖等多种生物活性，在代谢调节方面，岩藻黄素能促进脂肪分解和脂肪酸氧化，上调白色脂肪组织中线粒体解偶联蛋白1（UCP1）的表达，具有显著的抗肥胖功效，但其具体作用机制还需要进一步研究。本文综述近年来岩藻黄素在促进前体脂肪细胞分化、诱导白色脂肪细胞棕色化、调节胆固醇代谢等方面作用机制的研究成果，为进一步研究岩藻黄素的降脂作用机制提供理论参考。     

Alternatively activated macrophages produce catecholamines to sustain adaptive thermogenesis

All homeotherms use thermogenesis to maintain their core body temperature, ensuring that cellular functions and physiological processes can continue in cold environments. In the prevailing model of thermogenesis, when the hypothalamus senses cold temperatures it triggers sympathetic discharge, resulting in the release of noradrenaline in brown adipose tissue and white adipose tissue. Acting via the β(3)-adrenergic receptors, noradrenaline induces lipolysis in white adipocytes, whereas it stimulates the expression of thermogenic genes, such as PPAR-γ coactivator 1a (Ppargc1a), uncoupling protein 1 (Ucp1) and acyl-CoA synthetase long-chain family member 1 (Acsl1), in brown adipocytes. However, the precise nature of all the cell types involved in this efferent loop is not well established. Here we report in mice an unexpected requirement for the interleukin-4 (IL-4)-stimulated program of alternative macrophage activation in adaptive thermogenesis. Exposure to cold temperature rapidly promoted alternative activation of adipose tissue macrophages, which secrete catecholamines to induce thermogenic gene expression in brown adipose tissue and lipolysis in white adipose tissue. Absence of alternatively activated macrophages impaired metabolic adaptations to cold, whereas administration of IL-4 increased thermogenic gene expression, fatty acid mobilization and energy expenditure, all in a macrophage-dependent manner. Thus, we have discovered a role for alternatively activated macrophages in the orchestration of an important mammalian stress response, the response to cold.     

Superoxide activates mitochondrial uncoupling proteins.

Uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1) diverts energy from ATP synthesis to thermogenesis in the mitochondria of brown adipose tissue by catalysing a regulated leak of protons across the inner membrane. The functions of its homologues, UCP2 and UCP3, in other tissues are debated. UCP2 and UCP3 are present at much lower abundance than UCP1, and the uncoupling with which they are associated is not significantly thermogenic. Mild uncoupling would, however, decrease the mitochondrial production of reactive oxygen species, which are important mediators of oxidative damage. Here we show that superoxide increases mitochondrial proton conductance through effects on UCP1, UCP2 and UCP3. Superoxide-induced uncoupling requires fatty acids and is inhibited by purine nucleotides. It correlates with the tissue expression of UCPs, appears in mitochondria from yeast expressing UCP1, and is absent in skeletal muscle mitochondria from UCP3 knockout mice. Our findings indicate that the interaction of superoxide with UCPs may be a mechanism for decreasing the concentrations of reactive oxygen species inside mitochondria.     

A PPARγ-FGF1 axis is required for adaptive adipose remodelling and metabolic homeostasis

Although feast and famine cycles illustrate that remodelling of adipose tissue in response to fluctuations in nutrient availability is essential for maintaining metabolic homeostasis, the underlying mechanisms remain poorly understood. Here we identify fibroblast growth factor 1 (FGF1) as a critical transducer in this process in mice, and link its regulation to the nuclear receptor PPARγ (peroxisome proliferator activated receptor γ), which is the adipocyte master regulator and the target of the thiazolidinedione class of insulin sensitizing drugs. FGF1 is the prototype of the 22-member FGF family of proteins and has been implicated in a range of physiological processes, including development, wound healing and cardiovascular changes. Surprisingly, FGF1 knockout mice display no significant phenotype under standard laboratory conditions. We show that FGF1 is highly induced in adipose tissue in response to a high-fat diet and that mice lacking FGF1 develop an aggressive diabetic phenotype coupled to aberrant adipose expansion when challenged with a high-fat diet. Further analysis of adipose depots in FGF1-deficient mice revealed multiple histopathologies in the vasculature network, an accentuated inflammatory response, aberrant adipocyte size distribution and ectopic expression of pancreatic lipases. On withdrawal of the high-fat diet, this inflamed adipose tissue fails to properly resolve, resulting in extensive fat necrosis. In terms of mechanisms, we show that adipose induction of FGF1 in the fed state is regulated by PPARγ acting through an evolutionarily conserved promoter proximal PPAR response element within the FGF1 gene. The discovery of a phenotype for the FGF1 knockout mouse establishes the PPARγ–FGF1 axis as critical for maintaining metabolic homeostasis and insulin sensitization.     

Recent advances in brown adipose tissue biology

In mammals, white adipose tissue （WAT） store energy, whereas brown adipose tissue （BAT） burns energy. As a thermogenic organ, BAT can help maintain body temperature during cold exposure. Owing to its important roles in energy metabolism and regulating triacylglycerol levels, BAT has received great attention in treating obesity and its related diseases. Recent studies have suggested that BAT may secrete factor（s）—batokines—to regulate whole- body energy metabolism. In this review, we summarize the recent advances in the formation and function of BAT, as well as molecules that regulate the activity of BAT and beige fat.     

Coenzyme Q is an obligatory cofactor for uncoupling protein function

Uncoupling proteins (UCPs) are thought to be intricately controlled uncouplers that are responsible for the futile dissipation of mitochondrial chemiosmotic gradients, producing heat rather than ATP. They occur in many animal and plant cells and form a subfamily of the mitochondrial carrier family. Physiological uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation must be strongly regulated to avoid deterioration of the energy supply and cell death, which is caused by toxic uncouplers. However, an H+ transporting uncoupling function is well established only for UCP1 from brown adipose tissue, and the regulation of UCP1 by fatty acids, nucleotides and pH remains controversial. The failure of UCP1 expressed in Escherichia coli inclusion bodies to carry out fatty-acid-dependent H+ transport activity inclusion bodies made us seek a native UCP cofactor. Here we report the identification of coenzyme Q (ubiquinone) as such a cofactor. On addition of CoQ10 to reconstituted UCP1 from inclusion bodies, fatty-acid-dependent H+ transport reached the same rate as with native UCP1. The H+ transport was highly sensitive to purine nucleotides, and activated only by oxidized but not reduced CoQ. H+ transport of native UCP1 correlated with the endogenous CoQ content.     

Atypical beta-adrenoceptor on brown adipocytes as target for anti-obesity drugs

Recent studies suggest that thermogenesis in brown adipose tissue has an important role in the regulation of energy balance. Thermogenesis is effected by noradrenaline released from sympathetic nerve endings; the noradrenaline stimulates beta-adrenoceptors, causing lipolysis, and the released fatty acids then promote the uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation from electron transport. It has been widely accepted that mammalian beta-adrenoceptors exist as two subtypes, beta 1 and beta 2, and rat brown adipocyte beta-adrenoceptors have been classed as beta 1 or as a mixed beta 1/beta 2 population. The beta 1 subtype predominates in atria, whereas the beta 2 subtype predominates in trachea. However, we have now found a novel group of beta-adrenoceptor agonists that selectively stimulate lipolysis in brown adipocytes. In contrast, isoprenaline, fenoterol and salbutamol are less potent as stimulants of lipolysis than as stimulants of atrial rate or tracheal relaxation. Therefore, beta-adrenoceptors in rat brown adipocytes are of neither the beta 1 nor beta 2 subtypes. Compounds that selectively stimulate brown adipocyte beta-adrenoceptors should have potential as thermogenic anti-obesity agents and this has been demonstrated with BRL 26830A , BRL 33725A and BRL 35135A .     

肥胖／糖尿病过程中大鼠不同部位脂肪细胞大小的比较

为比较大鼠肥胖／糖尿病过程中脂肪分布及脂肪细胞大小的变化,初步阐明脂肪细胞大小与2型糖尿病发生相关性。将Wistar雄性大鼠随机分为3组,每组12只：普通饮食组（正常对照）,高脂饮食组（肥胖）,高脂饮食＋链脲佐菌素组（糖尿病组）。第0周随机抽取6只大鼠处死后,取皮下脂肪及腹膜内脂肪,用2．5％甲醛乙醇溶液固定,进行石蜡包埋,HE染色,制成切片。在400倍光学显微镜下随机选取10个视野检测统计脂肪细胞数量及面积大小（mm^2）。在饲养过程中分别选取第6、9、12、14周等4个时间点,每个时间点各组随机处死2只大鼠,取皮下脂肪及腹膜内脂肪进行相同处理。同时,在各个时间点对大鼠体重、血糖进行检测。各组大鼠皮下脂肪细胞与腹膜内脂肪细胞大小差异均有统计学意义（F=9．653,P=0．001;F=160．605,P=0．000）,其中正常组与肥胖组、正常组与糖尿病组差异都有统计学意义,而肥胖组与糖尿病组差异无统计学意义。不同部位脂肪细胞大小的差异无统计学意义。脂肪细胞的体积增大,与大鼠体重及血糖变化相平行。大鼠脂肪细胞的体积增大与肥胖／糖尿病的演进过程相平行,大鼠脂肪组织的分布与脂肪细胞的大小无明显相关性。     

Macrophage-specific PPARgamma controls alternative activation and improves insulin resistance

Obesity and insulin resistance, the cardinal features of metabolic syndrome, are closely associated with a state of low-grade inflammation. In adipose tissue chronic overnutrition leads to macrophage infiltration, resulting in local inflammation that potentiates insulin resistance. For instance, transgenic expression of Mcp1 (also known as chemokine ligand 2, Ccl2) in adipose tissue increases macrophage infiltration, inflammation and insulin resistance. Conversely, disruption of Mcp1 or its receptor Ccr2 impairs migration of macrophages into adipose tissue, thereby lowering adipose tissue inflammation and improving insulin sensitivity. These findings together suggest a correlation between macrophage content in adipose tissue and insulin resistance. However, resident macrophages in tissues display tremendous heterogeneity in their activities and functions, primarily reflecting their local metabolic and immune microenvironment. While Mcp1 directs recruitment of pro-inflammatory classically activated macrophages to sites of tissue damage, resident macrophages, such as those present in the adipose tissue of lean mice, display the alternatively activated phenotype. Despite their higher capacity to repair tissue, the precise role of alternatively activated macrophages in obesity-induced insulin resistance remains unknown. Using mice with macrophage-specific deletion of the peroxisome proliferator activated receptor-gamma (PPARgamma), we show here that PPARgamma is required for maturation of alternatively activated macrophages. Disruption of PPARgamma in myeloid cells impairs alternative macrophage activation, and predisposes these animals to development of diet-induced obesity, insulin resistance, and glucose intolerance. Furthermore, gene expression profiling revealed that downregulation of oxidative phosphorylation gene expression in skeletal muscle and liver leads to decreased insulin sensitivity in these tissues. Together, our findings suggest that resident alternatively activated macrophages have a beneficial role in regulating nutrient homeostasis and suggest that macrophage polarization towards the alternative state might be a useful strategy for treating type 2 diabetes.     

茶多酚EGCG对小鼠棕色脂肪代谢的影响

 随着对棕色脂肪组织（BAT）在成人体内具有生物学功能的肯定,棕色脂肪已经成为当今医学研究的热点。采用动物实验、病理组织学方法及免疫组化,观察了表没食子儿茶素没食子酸酯（EGCG）对棕色脂肪代谢的影响。结果表明,在体重和鼠龄相近时,不同种属小鼠肩甲间棕色脂肪组织HE 染色后的形态不同,C57BL/6 脂肪细胞中的空泡大,胞浆含量少,BALB/c 小鼠脂肪细胞中的空泡小,胞浆含量多,昆明小鼠居中。给昆明小鼠口服不同剂量EGCG 后,150 mg/kg EGCG 能降低小鼠体重的增长,降低附睾周围白色脂肪组织的重量,但没有统计学意义。同时,EGCG 能降低棕色脂肪细胞内脂肪含量,增加胞浆含量,具有统计学意义（P<0.001）。免疫组化结果表明,EGCG 能增加棕色脂肪细胞内脱偶联蛋白1（UCP1）的表达,增加能量代谢。因此,不同种属小鼠的BAT 具有不同的组织形态学特点,这为研究BAT 小鼠的选择提供了依据;EGCG 能够调节小鼠棕色脂肪的代谢功能,这为进一步研究作用机制打下了基础,同时为茶叶在脂肪代谢方面的调节提供了一种新的思路和依据。     

Dysfunction of lipid sensor GPR120 leads to obesity in both mouse and human

Free fatty acids provide an important energy source as nutrients, and act as signalling molecules in various cellular processes. Several G-protein-coupled receptors have been identified as free-fatty-acid receptors important in physiology as well as in several diseases. GPR120 (also known as O3FAR1) functions as a receptor for unsaturated long-chain free fatty acids and has a critical role in various physiological homeostasis mechanisms such as adipogenesis, regulation of appetite and food preference. Here we show that GPR120-deficient mice fed a high-fat diet develop obesity, glucose intolerance and fatty liver with decreased adipocyte differentiation and lipogenesis and enhanced hepatic lipogenesis. Insulin resistance in such mice is associated with reduced insulin signalling and enhanced inflammation in adipose tissue. In human, we show that GPR120 expression in adipose tissue is significantly higher in obese individuals than in lean controls. GPR120 exon sequencing in obese subjects reveals a deleterious non-synonymous mutation (p.R270H) that inhibits GPR120 signalling activity. Furthermore, the p.R270H variant increases the risk of obesity in European populations. Overall, this study demonstrates that the lipid sensor GPR120 has a key role in sensing dietary fat and, therefore, in the control of energy balance in both humans and rodents.     

The status of Wnt signalling regulates neural and epidermal fates in the chick embryo

The acquisition of neural fate by embryonic ectodermal cells is a fundamental step in the formation of the vertebrate nervous system. Neural induction seems to involve signalling by fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) and attenuation of the activity of bone morphogenetic protein (BMP). But FGFs, either alone or in combination with BMP antagonists, are not sufficient to induce neural fate in prospective epidermal ectoderm of amniote embryos. These findings suggest that additional signals are involved in the specification of neural fate. Here we show that the state of Wnt signalling is a critical determinant of neural and epidermal fates in the chick embryo. Continual Wnt signalling blocks the response of epiblast cells to FGF signals, permitting the expression and signalling of BMP to direct an epidermal fate. Conversely, a lack of exposure of epiblast cells to Wnt signals permits FGFs to induce a neural fate.     

Dynamics of human adipose lipid turnover in health and metabolic disease

Adipose tissue mass is determined by the storage and removal of triglycerides in adipocytes. Little is known, however, about adipose lipid turnover in humans in health and pathology. To study this in vivo, here we determined lipid age by measuring (14)C derived from above ground nuclear bomb tests in adipocyte lipids. We report that during the average ten-year lifespan of human adipocytes, triglycerides are renewed six times. Lipid age is independent of adipocyte size, is very stable across a wide range of adult ages and does not differ between genders. Adipocyte lipid turnover, however, is strongly related to conditions with disturbed lipid metabolism. In obesity, triglyceride removal rate (lipolysis followed by oxidation) is decreased and the amount of triglycerides stored each year is increased. In contrast, both lipid removal and storage rates are decreased in non-obese patients diagnosed with the most common hereditary form of dyslipidaemia, familial combined hyperlipidaemia. Lipid removal rate is positively correlated with the capacity of adipocytes to break down triglycerides, as assessed through lipolysis, and is inversely related to insulin resistance. Our data support a mechanism in which adipocyte lipid storage and removal have different roles in health and pathology. High storage but low triglyceride removal promotes fat tissue accumulation and obesity. Reduction of both triglyceride storage and removal decreases lipid shunting through adipose tissue and thus promotes dyslipidaemia. We identify adipocyte lipid turnover as a novel target for prevention and treatment of metabolic disease.     

Insulin-regulatable tissues express a unique insulin-sensitive glucose transport protein

At least three different glucose transport systems exist in mammalian cells. These are: (1) the constitutively active, facilitative carrier characteristic of human erythrocytes, Hep G2 (ref. 2) cells and rat brain; (2) the Na-dependent active transporter of kidney and small intestine; and (3) the facilitative carrier of rat liver (B. Thorens and H. F. Lodish, personal communication). A fourth possible glucose transport system is the insulin-dependent carrier that may be specific to muscle and adipose tissue. This transporter resides primarily in an intracellular compartment in resting cells from where it translocates to the cell surface upon cellular insulin exposure. This raises the question of whether hormonal regulation of glucose transport is conferred by virtue of a tissue-specific signalling mechanism or a tissue-specific glucose transporter. Here we present data supporting the latter concept based upon a monoclonal antibody against the fat cell glucose transporter that identifies a unique, insulin-regulatable glucose transport protein in muscle and adipose tissue.     

Mice overexpressing human uncoupling protein-3 in skeletal muscle are hyperphagic and lean

Uncoupling protein-3 (UCP-3) is a recently identified member of the mitochondrial transporter superfamily that is expressed predominantly in skeletal muscle. However, its close relative UCP-1 is expressed exclusively in brown adipose tissue, a tissue whose main function is fat combustion and thermogenesis. Studies on the expression of UCP-3 in animals and humans in different physiological situations support a role for UCP-3 in energy balance and lipid metabolism. However, direct evidence for these roles is lacking. Here we describe the creation of transgenic mice that overexpress human UCP-3 in skeletal muscle. These mice are hyperphagic but weigh less than their wild-type littermates. Magnetic resonance imaging shows a striking reduction in adipose tissue mass. The mice also exhibit lower fasting plasma glucose and insulin levels and an increased glucose clearance rate. This provides evidence that skeletal muscle UCP-3 has the potential to influence metabolic rate and glucose homeostasis in the whole animal.     

抗猪脂肪细胞膜蛋白抗体的制备及测定

猪屠宰后,立刻取其背部皮下脂肪组织在37℃膜萃取液中匀浆,用差速离心法和密度梯度离心法提取脂肪细胞膜蛋白,经SDS-PAGE分析,背部脂肪细胞膜蛋白与其他组织细胞膜蛋白具有较大差异,但也有一些相同的膜蛋白.以猪背部脂肪细胞膜蛋白为抗原,免疫雄性家兔,制备抗猪脂肪细胞膜蛋白血清,经酶联免疫反应(ELISA)测定,血清效价达到1:12800.同样,用ELISA和Western-blotting测定抗体与其他组织细胞膜的交叉反应,结果显示:抗猪脂肪细胞膜抗体与其他组织细胞膜有交叉反应,但反应性不高.     

棕色脂肪组织银染实验

通过改进龙桂开银染方法对休眠期刺猬褐色脂肪组织进行染色实验,结果表明适当改进的龙桂开银染方法能够使褐色脂肪组织染出良好的效果,并在银染的休眠期刺猬褐色脂肪组织观察中发现,休眠期刺猬褐色脂肪组织细胞内有核仁,并多为1～4个,这与常规描述不一致。