Episodic outgassing as the origin of atmospheric methane on Titan

Saturn's largest satellite, Titan, has a massive nitrogen atmosphere containing up to 5 per cent methane near its surface. Photochemistry in the stratosphere would remove the present-day atmospheric methane in a few tens of millions of years. Before the Cassini-Huygens mission arrived at Saturn, widespread liquid methane or mixed hydrocarbon seas hundreds of metres in thickness were proposed as reservoirs from which methane could be resupplied to the atmosphere over geologic time. Titan fly-by observations and ground-based observations rule out the presence of extensive bodies of liquid hydrocarbons at present, which means that methane must be derived from another source over Titan's history. Here we show that episodic outgassing of methane stored as clathrate hydrates within an icy shell above an ammonia-enriched water ocean is the most likely explanation for Titan's atmospheric methane. The other possible explanations all fail because they cannot explain the absence of surface liquid reservoirs and/or the low dissipative state of the interior. On the basis of our models, we predict that future fly-bys should reveal the existence of both a subsurface water ocean and a rocky core, and should detect more cryovolcanic edifices.     

The lakes of Titan

The surface of Saturn's haze-shrouded moon Titan has long been proposed to have oceans or lakes, on the basis of the stability of liquid methane at the surface. Initial visible and radar imaging failed to find any evidence of an ocean, although abundant evidence was found that flowing liquids have existed on the surface. Here we provide definitive evidence for the presence of lakes on the surface of Titan, obtained during the Cassini Radar flyby of Titan on 22 July 2006 (T16). The radar imaging polewards of 70 degrees north shows more than 75 circular to irregular radar-dark patches, in a region where liquid methane and ethane are expected to be abundant and stable on the surface. The radar-dark patches are interpreted as lakes on the basis of their very low radar reflectivity and morphological similarities to lakes, including associated channels and location in topographic depressions. Some of the lakes do not completely fill the depressions in which they lie, and apparently dry depressions are present. We interpret this to indicate that lakes are present in a number of states, including partly dry and liquid-filled. These northern-hemisphere lakes constitute the strongest evidence yet that a condensable-liquid hydrological cycle is active in Titan's surface and atmosphere, in which the lakes are filled through rainfall and/or intersection with the subsurface 'liquid methane' table.     

Deposition of metal films on an ionic liquid as a basis for a lunar telescope

An optical/infrared telescope of 20-100 m aperture located on the Moon would be able to observe objects 100 to 1,000 times fainter than the proposed next generation of space telescopes. The infrared region of the spectrum is particularly important for observations of objects at redshifts z > 7. The apparent simplicity and low mass of a liquid mirror telescope, compared with a traditional pointable glass mirror, suggest that the concept should be considered further. A previously proposed liquid mirror telescope, based upon a spinning liquid metallic alloy, is not appropriate for infrared applications, which will require a liquid below 130 K. Here we report the successful coating of an ionic liquid with silver. The surface is smooth and the silver coating is stable on a timescale of months. The underlying ionic liquid does not evaporate in a vacuum and remains liquid down to a temperature of 175 K. Given that there are approximately 10(6) simple and approximately 10(18) ternary ionic liquids, it should be possible to synthesize liquids with even lower melting temperatures.     

单Doppler雷达IVAP风场反演试验

单Doppler雷达风场反演技术对于扩大Doppler雷达在中尺度气象监测和预报中的应用范围具有重要的作用。通过采用"给定方位角内风场均匀假定"提出积分速度—方位处理技术IVAP(Integrating Velocity-azimuth Processing),克服了VAP技术在单多普勒雷达风场反演中对Doppler速度小尺度脉动过分敏感的缺点,及VAD(Velocity-azimuth Display,速度-方位显示)技术只能反演平均风矢量问题。利用2001-08-05上海特大暴雨时虹桥机场Doppler雷达速度资料进行中尺度风场反演试验。对均匀风方位角区间分别取9?,18?,45?和90?的反演结果的比较表明,采用较小的方位角区间可以反演出与这次暴雨有关的气旋式环流和中尺度辐合线。利用地面站实测风记录及风廓线数据对IVAP反演风的质量进行了评估。结果表明,反演风的风向和地面实测风的风向有很好的相关性,反演方位角区间越大,相关性越好。与20个时次同高度上风廓线仪探测的风速数据的对比表明,IVAP技术反演出的风速和它们也有很好的相关性,两者u、v分量均方误差在2m/s左右。由于IVAP技术风场反演无需事先对Doppler雷达原始的速度资料进行人为的滤波或平滑处理,所以具有较强的客观性,便于在气象雷达预报业务中应用。     

Erosion-corrosion and its mitigation on the internal surface of the expansion segment of N80 steel tube

We investigated erosion-corrosion(E-C) and its mitigation on the internal surface of the expansion segment of N80 steel tube in a loop system using array electrode technique, weight-loss measurement, computational-fluid-dynamics simulation, and surface characterization techniques.The results show that high E-C rates can occur at locations where there is a high flow velocity and/or a strong impact from sand particles, which results in different E-C rates at various locations.Consequently, it can be expected that localized corrosion often occurs in such segments.The E-C rate at each location in the expansion segment can be significantly mitigated with an imidazoline derivative inhibitor, as the resulting inhibitor layer significantly impedes the electrochemical reaction rate.However, we found that this inhibitor layer could not effectively reduce the difference in the erosion rates at different locations on the internal surface of the expansion segment.This means that localized corrosion can still occur at the expansion segment despite the presence of the inhibitor.     

Erosion-corrosion and its mitigation on the internal surface of the expansion segment of N80 steel tube

We investigated erosion-corrosion(E-C) and its mitigation on the internal surface of the expansion segment of N80 steel tube in a loop system using array electrode technique, weight-loss measurement, computational-fluid-dynamics simulation, and surface characterization techniques.The results show that high E-C rates can occur at locations where there is a high flow velocity and/or a strong impact from sand particles, which results in different E-C rates at various locations.Consequently, it can be expected that localized corrosion often occurs in such segments.The E-C rate at each location in the expansion segment can be significantly mitigated with an imidazoline derivative inhibitor, as the resulting inhibitor layer significantly impedes the electrochemical reaction rate.However, we found that this inhibitor layer could not effectively reduce the difference in the erosion rates at different locations on the internal surface of the expansion segment.This means that localized corrosion can still occur at the expansion segment despite the presence of the inhibitor.     

Outer-core compositional stratification from observed core wave speed profiles

Light elements must be present in the nearly pure iron core of the Earth to match the remotely observed properties of the outer and inner cores. Crystallization of the inner core excludes light elements from the solid, concentrating them in liquid near the inner-core boundary that potentially rises and collects at the top of the core, and this may have a seismically observable signal. Here we present array-based observations of seismic waves sensitive to this part of the core whose wave speeds require there to be radial compositional variation in the topmost 300?km of the outer core. The velocity profile significantly departs from that of compression of a homogeneous liquid. Total light-element enrichment is up to five weight per cent at the top of the core if modelled in the Fe-O-S system. The stratification suggests the existence of a subadiabatic temperature gradient at the top of the outer core.     

The role of dyking and fault control in the rapid onset of eruption at Chaitén volcano, Chile

Rhyolite is the most viscous of liquid magmas, so it was surprising that on 2?May 2008 at Chaitén Volcano, located in Chile's southern Andean volcanic zone, rhyolitic magma migrated from more than 5?km depth in less than 4?hours (ref.?1) and erupted explosively with only two days of detected precursory seismic activity. The last major rhyolite eruption before that at Chaitén was the largest volcanic eruption in the twentieth century, at Novarupta volcano, Alaska, in 1912. Because of the historically rare and explosive nature of rhyolite eruptions and because of the surprisingly short warning before the eruption of the Chaitén volcano, any information about the workings of the magmatic system at Chaitén, and rhyolitic systems in general, is important from both the scientific and hazard perspectives. Here we present surface deformation data related to the Chaitén eruption based on radar interferometry observations from the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) DAICHI (ALOS) satellite. The data on this explosive rhyolite eruption indicate that the rapid ascent of rhyolite occurred through dyking and that melt segregation and magma storage were controlled by existing faults.     

Uplift, thermal unrest and magma intrusion at Yellowstone caldera

The Yellowstone caldera, in the western United States, formed approximately 640,000 years ago when an explosive eruption ejected approximately 1,000 km3 of material. It is the youngest of a series of large calderas that formed during sequential cataclysmic eruptions that began approximately 16 million years ago in eastern Oregon and northern Nevada. The Yellowstone caldera was largely buried by rhyolite lava flows during eruptions that occurred from approximately 150,000 to approximately 70,000 years ago. Since the last eruption, Yellowstone has remained restless, with high seismicity, continuing uplift/subsidence episodes with movements of approximately 70 cm historically to several metres since the Pleistocene epoch, and intense hydrothermal activity. Here we present observations of a new mode of surface deformation in Yellowstone, based on radar interferometry observations from the European Space Agency ERS-2 satellite. We infer that the observed pattern of uplift and subsidence results from variations in the movement of molten basalt into and out of the Yellowstone volcanic system.     

驻马店市两次强对流天气的多普勒雷达产品特征的对比分析

针对近年来河南省驻马店市出现的强对流天气,用多普勒天气雷达产品如反射率因子、径向速度、垂直液态含水量、风暴跟踪信息等进行普查分析,重点对两次不同性质的强对流天气的雷达产品进行详细研究.发现强对流天气的雷达回波强度在40 dBz以上,强度为40~50 dBz的回波移速为25~35 km/h时,一般出现强降水,无雷暴和大风;回波移速为35~45 km/h时开始伴有雷暴和大风的出现;当回波移速达到45~60 km/h时,强雷暴和大风的出现几率上升,而强降水的出现几率急剧下降;当回波移速达到60~69 km/h时,则以雷雨大风为主,强降水出现很少.冰雹时强回波伴有"V"型缺口,回波强度可达55 dBz以上,强回波中心出现在9~12 km高度,回波顶可高达15~18km,强回波下方有强上升气流造成的弱回波区.短历时强降水的雷达回波强度比冰雹、雷暴弱,一般为40~50 dBz,强回波中心高度5~6 km;当回波强度大于50 dBz,强回波中心达到8 km以上时,往往伴有强雷电和大风冰雹出现;回波形态多呈现絮状混合型回波,其中有块状的强回波,对流性的强降水回波则是边缘清晰的块状结构.     

固体表面上液氮膜的界面张力与间隙孔径

根据表面热力学原理,本文导出从无孔固体吸附氮气的等温线计算其表面上吸附生成的液氮膜界面张力方程式;还导出计算固体中圆筒形间隙孔径方程式。计算结果表明:在77.3K,绝大多数无孔固体表面上吸附液氮膜的界面张力与液氮的界面张力相差很大;本文方法计算出固体中圆筒形间隙孔径比用Kelvin公式计算结果大。     

Meteorological conditions of ice accretion based on real-time observation of high voltage transmission line

Meteorological conditions during ice accretion on the 500 kV high voltage transmission lines and test cables are presented, together with a calculation of liquid water content (LWC). The data include meteorological observations and real-time ice accretion on the transmission lines of the central China power grid, from 2008 to 2009 in Hubei Province. Also included are observations of ice thickness, microphysics of fog droplets, and other relevant data from a nearby automated weather station at Enshi radar station, from January to March 2009. Results show that temperature at Zhangen tower #307 was correlated with the temperature at Enshi radar station. The temperature on the surface of the high voltage transmission line was 2-4°C higher than ambient air temperature, although the temperatures were positively correlated. Ice formation temperature was about -2°C and ice shedding temperature was about -2 to -1°C on the high voltage transmission line, both of which were lower than the temperature threshold values on the test cable. Ice thickness was significantly affected by temperature variation when the ice was thin. The calculated LWC was correlated with observed LWC, although the calculated value was greater.     

Correction for hydrometeor attenuation of C band radar data

C band digital weather radar observed data, collected from the Huaihe River Basin Energy and Water Cycle Experiment (HUBEX), are used for the study of correction of hydrometeor attenuation in the Fuyang region. An iterative algorithm is used for the correction scheme. The preliminary study shows that there may be a big difference between the radar observed reflectivity and the corresponding corrected one. Based upon the hourly precipitation data derived by the radar data sampled from the observations at intervals of 10 min and rain gauge recorded hourly precipitation data, it is found that the attenuation correction algorithm gives better results than those from direct observation. It is also shown that the temperature of hydrometeors may strongly affect the results derived from the attenuation algorithm.     

An airborne microwave radiometer and measurements of cloud liquid water

A single-channel (9.5 mm) airborne microwave radiometer with one antenna is developed. The retrieval methods and primary observation results of cloud liquid water and super-cooled cloud liquid water are discussed. The aircraft experiments show that the cloud liquid water and super-cooled liquid water can be sensitively monitored at some level of accuracy by the radiometer. The results of cloud liquid water content are reasonable and correspond well with the surface radar echo intensity. The design of the airborne radiometer and its retrieval methods are feasible, giving it application value.     

热力学效应对液氮空化流动的影响

为了研究低温流体空化流动特性,采用数值计算的方法研究了液氮空化流动特性.计算中应用二次开发方法在商业软件CFX中引入修正的Kunz空化模型及能量方程,其物性参数随流场温度变化而不断更新.对绕翼型和对称回转体在液氮中的空化流动进行了计算,基于计算结果分析了热力学效应对空化特征的影响.结果表明,计算与实验的结果基本一致.当液氮工作温度接近临界点时,热力学效应更加显著.它主要表现在空穴变短、蒸气体积分数减少和汽液界面变得模糊.在空化产生的区域,流场的温度由于吸收蒸发潜热降低,在空穴尾部区域,空穴溃灭释放潜热而导致温度升高.同时发现,由于热力学效应温降在0.5～2.5K之间.     

Fractures as the main pathways of water flow in temperate glaciers

Understanding the flow of water through the body of a glacier is important, because the spatial distribution of water and the rate of infiltration to the glacier bottom is one control on water storage and pressure, glacier sliding and surging, and the release of glacial outburst floods. According to the prevailing hypothesis, this water flow takes place in a network of tubular conduits. Here we analyse video images from 48 boreholes drilled into the small Swedish glacier Storglaci?ren, showing that the glacier's hydrological system is instead dominated by fractures that convey water at slow speeds. We detected hydraulically connected fractures at all depths, including near the glacier bottom. Our observations indicate that fractures provide the main pathways for surface water to reach deep within the glacier, whereas tubular conduits probably form only in special circumstances. A network of hydraulically linked fractures offers a simple explanation for the origin and evolution of the englacial water flow system and its seasonal regeneration. Such a fracture network also explains radar observations that reveal a complex pattern of echoes rather than a system of conduits. Our findings may be important in understanding the catastrophic collapse of ice shelves and rapid hydraulic connection between the surface and bed of an ice sheet.     

具有液氮和蒸发氦气冷却屏的液氦容器的最佳热设计—能量优化法

本文提出了一种液氦容器最佳热设计的方法,它适用于利用液氮和蒸发的氦气冷却支撑和多层绝热的液氦容器。用以确定热交换器在支撑上和多层绝热间的最佳位置,可使液氮机和液氦机所消耗的总能量为最小。采用的优化方法是拉格朗日乘数法。并进行了归一化处理使得出的结果能适用于不同效率的液氮机和液氦机以及不同大小的杜瓦。对具有不锈钢支撑和环氧玻璃纤维支撑的液氦容器分别进行了计算,其计算结果用曲线表示,可便于设计者使用。     

电磁环境下无人机干扰雷达通信效用实验研究

为了判断电磁环境下无人机的作战能力,为提高无人机作战能力提供技术支持,对电磁环境下无人机干扰雷达通信效用进行实验研究。给出理想状态下雷达方程,在此基础上通过利用阈值判断电磁干扰中的干扰类型。对电磁环境下无人机干扰雷达通信接收机输入端信干比、干扰噪声比和信号噪声比进行计算,为雷达通信效用实验提供依据。将雷达通信抗干扰改善因子、有效抗干扰改善因子、综合测度雷达通信抗干扰能力、相对自卫距离、相对烧穿距离作为衡量雷达通信效用的指标进行实验研究。通过CPLD/FPGA完成雷达通信接口设计,利用DSP回波信号实时输出,完成实验系统设计。在实验系统中,令无人机在不同等效指标位置产生干扰,依次对雷达通信接收机的输出信号比进行记录,记录各雷达通信效用衡量指标,经多次测量降低误差。结果表明:在无人机与雷达间间隔超过100 km的情况下,雷达通信效用尚可。在无人机与雷达间间隔低于100 km(包括100 km)的情况下,雷达通信效用降低。可见电磁环境下无人机干扰会降低雷达通信效用,在一定间隔下无人机作战能力很强。     

应力释放诱导的酞菁钴转子阵列

利用低温扫描隧道显微镜研究了酞菁钴(CoPc)分子在Cd(0001)表面上形成的自组装单层和转子阵列.在低温生长的酞菁钴分子单层中发现了应力诱导的3种空位结构:单分子空位、两分子空位和三分子空位.研究发现高温退火会导致结构相变:3种空位结构转变为均匀分布的单分子空位阵列.特别有趣的是,在每个单分子空位内部都存在一个酞菁钴转子.在液氮温度下(78 K),酞菁钴转子围绕着空位中心发生偏心转动;在液氦温度下(4.7 K),转子被冻结在空位的边缘上.     

超低温预处理对椰壳基活性炭物理特性的影响

为提高活性炭的吸附性能并降低制备工艺能耗,研究超低温预处理对活性炭品质及其制备工艺的影响,采用液氮对椰壳进行了超低温预处理。通过快速升温活化,在600 ℃下即制得比表面积超过无预处理800 ℃下制得的活性炭,比表面积由1600 m2/g增大至2300 m2/g以上,微孔总体积也由0.67 cm3/g增加至0.92 cm3/g。结果表明,超低温预处理方式对提高活性炭品质和降低工艺能耗都有显著的促进作用,该研究为活性炭功能性开发和表面结构改良研究提供了参考依据。