SHATTERPROOF MADS-box genes control seed dispersal in Arabidopsis

The fruit, which mediates the maturation and dispersal of seeds, is a complex structure unique to flowering plants. Seed dispersal in plants such as Arabidopsis occurs by a process called fruit dehiscence, or pod shatter. Few studies have focused on identifying genes that regulate this process, in spite of the agronomic value of controlling seed dispersal in crop plants such as canola. Here we show that the closely related SHATTERPROOF (SHP1) and SHATTERPROOF2 (SHP2) MADS-box genes are required for fruit dehiscence in Arabidopsis. Moreover, SHP1 and SHP2 are functionally redundant, as neither single mutant displays a novel phenotype. Our studies of shp1 shp2 fruit, and of plants constitutively expressing SHP1 and SHP2, show that these two genes control dehiscence zone differentiation and promote the lignification of adjacent cells. Our results indicate that further analysis of the molecular events underlying fruit dehiscence may allow genetic manipulation of pod shatter in crop plants.     

Gamete formation without meiosis in Arabidopsis

Apomixis, the formation of asexual seeds in plants, leads to populations that are genetically uniform maternal clones. The transfer of apomixis to crop plants holds great promise in plant breeding for fixation of heterozygosity and hybrid vigour because it would allow the propagation of hybrids over successive generations. Apomixis involves the production of unreduced (diploid) female gametes that retain the genotype of the parent plant (apomeiosis), followed by parthenogenetic development of the egg cell into an embryo and the formation of functional endosperm. The molecular mechanisms underlying apomixis are unknown. Here we show that mutation of the Arabidopsis gene DYAD/SWITCH1 (SWI1), a regulator of meiotic chromosome organization, leads to apomeiosis. We found that most fertile ovules in dyad plants form seeds that are triploid and that arise from the fertilization of an unreduced female gamete by a haploid male gamete. The unreduced female gametes fully retain parental heterozygosity across the genome, which is characteristic of apomeiosis. Our results show that the alteration of a single gene in a sexual plant can bring about functional apomeiosis, a major component of apomixis.     

浙江天童不同生境和攀援方式对葛藤有性生殖特征的影响初探

通过对葛藤在2种生境条件及2种攀援方式下，每个花序的平均开花数量、座果数量、种子数、单果平均干重以及座果率等有性生殖特征的数量化比较分析，探讨了不同的生境条件和攀援方式对葛藤的有性生殖特征的影响，结果表明：1）各样地葛藤种群所处立地资源差异，导致各种群在有性生殖特征（开花数量、座果数量、种子数量及座果率）的数量特征方面差异显著，尤其是生长在阳生、水分充裕的生境条件下，为攀援植物体的种群与生活在荫生环境、为匍匐植物体的种群之间差异最为显著。与荫生、无支持木的种群相比，阳生而且攀援的种群的座果率是其40倍之多，平均座果数量是其53倍，平均种子数量是其70倍，平均开花数量比它高30％；2）当攀援方式作为主导因子时，葛藤生殖特征所产生的差异更显著于生境条件作为主导因子时的差异；3）对有性生殖特征进行相关性分析．葛藤的座果率与开花数量负相关、与座果数量正相关；单果序的座果数量与种子数量和开花数量呈正相关关系。     

人工授粉对濒危植物长柄双花木结果率和结籽率的影响

花粉和资源有效性是影响有花植物生殖成功的关键因素。本研究探讨了人工授粉对濒危植物长柄双花木雌性生殖模式,尤其是对其结果率、结籽率以及果实和种子重量的影响。研究结果表明:异花授粉提高了长柄双花木的结果率和结籽率,且前期花的结果率、结籽率均显著高于后期花的;而自花授粉不但显著降低了其结果率和结籽率,同时在前期和后期花的结果率、结籽率之间均无显著差异。异花授粉显著提高了单株植物种子重量及单果种子重量,而自花授粉则显著降低了它们的重量。异花授粉后前期花的果实重量及单果种子重量均显著高于后期花的。同时,异花人工授粉后种子数量和单粒种子重量之间存在权衡,而自然授粉条件下则不存在这种权衡。     

额济纳胡杨有性繁殖失败因素分析

对内蒙古额济纳绿洲胡杨种群的苗库状况、种子雨、种子生活力以及环境因子对种子萌发的影响进行了研究,结果表明:胡杨萌生苗占更新苗的绝大多数;胡杨能够产生出大量的有生活力的种子,胡杨种子散播时间在种群内部存在异质性;在恶劣的自然条件下,胡杨种子在落种后生活力迅速降低,(6-40)d后绝大部分种子(95%)会丧失活力。种子萌发试验表明:表土层含水量低、含盐量高、生化他感作用是胡杨种子萌发的限制性因子。由于胡杨种子属于短命种子,在其短暂的活力期内没有适宜的环境条件使之萌发,从而造成种子萌发失败。缺水所导致的种子安全萌发生境的缺失是额济纳胡杨的有性繁殖失败的首要原因。     

Bypassing genomic imprinting allows seed development

In developing progeny of mammals the two parental genomes are differentially expressed according to imprinting marks, and embryos with only a uniparental genetic contribution die. Gene expression that is dependent on the parent of origin has also been observed in the offspring of flowering plants, and mutations in the imprinting machinery lead to embryonic lethality, primarily affecting the development of the endosperm-a structure in the seed that nourishes the embryo, analogous to the function of the mammalian placenta. Here we have generated Arabidopsis thaliana seeds in which the endosperm is of uniparental, that is, maternal, origin. We demonstrate that imprinting in developing seeds can be bypassed and viable albeit smaller seedlings can develop from seeds lacking a paternal contribution to the endosperm. Bypassing is only possible if the mother is mutant for any of the FIS-class genes, which encode Polycomb group chromatin-modifying factors. Thus, these data provide functional evidence that the action of the FIS complex balances the contribution of the paternal genome. As flowering plants have evolved a special reproduction system with a parallel fusion of two female with two male gametes, our findings support the hypothesis that only with the evolution of double fertilization did the action of the FIS genes become a requirement for seed development. Furthermore, our data argue for a gametophytic origin of endosperm in flowering plants, thereby supporting a hypothesis raised in 1900 by Eduard Strasburger.     

昆嵛山植物性别系统及其生态关联性

植物性别系统影响生态系统组成及种群进化,同时受多种生态因子影响.为分析昆嵛山种子植物性别系统分布及其生态关联性,调查了昆嵛山维管植物835种,详细观察、记录花部特征、果实类型、生活型、传粉特征.运用卡方检验分析上述特征与植物性别系统之间的关联性,对比昆嵛山植物与其他植物群落的性别系统组成,探讨影响植物性别系统组成的因素及其繁殖策略.结果表明:昆嵛山植物性别系统中79.2%为雌雄同体、11.3%为雌雄同株、9.5%为雌雄异株,雌雄同体植物比例明显高于北美洲温带森林,该组成与植物种系发生有关;生活型、花部特征、传粉方式、果实类型等特征与性别系统显著相关.     

Phase-contrast X-ray microtomography links Cretaceous seeds with Gnetales and Bennettitales

Over the past 25 years the discovery and study of Cretaceous plant mesofossils has yielded diverse and exquisitely preserved fossil flowers that have revolutionized our knowledge of early angiosperms, but remains of other seed plants in the same mesofossil assemblages have so far received little attention. These fossils, typically only a few millimetres long, have often been charred in natural fires and preserve both three-dimensional morphology and cellular detail. Here we use phase-contrast-enhanced synchrotron-radiation X-ray tomographic microscopy to clarify the structure of small charcoalified gymnosperm seeds from the Early Cretaceous of Portugal and North America. The new information links these seeds to Gnetales (including Erdtmanithecales, a putatively closely related fossil group), and to Bennettitales--important extinct Mesozoic seed plants with cycad-like leaves and flower-like reproductive structures. The results suggest that the distinctive seed architecture of Gnetales, Erdtmanithecales and Bennettitales defines a clade containing these taxa. This has significant consequences for hypotheses of seed plant phylogeny by providing support for key elements of the controversial anthophyte hypothesis, which links angiosperms, Bennettitales and Gnetales.     

野古草(Arundinella hirta) 对水淹逆境的生殖响应

分析了嘉陵江边不同强度水淹后的1年生野古草个体的有性生殖和无性生殖数量特征，结果表明：野古草有性生殖植株的单株种子质量、粒数和生殖分配等随水淹强度增大而逐渐降低，高强度水淹后野古草没有进行有性生殖．在一定水淹范围内，表征野古草无性生殖的单株质量、分枝数随水淹强度的增大而呈增大的趋势，说明野古草无性生殖随水淹强度的增加呈增强的趋势．在周期性的自然水淹下，无性生殖是野古草适应自然的生殖方式．     

MIXTA/MIXTA-like基因特征及其对植物表皮细胞分化的调控

植物表皮细胞是植物最外层直接与环境相互作用的细胞,依据其不同功能,分化形成多种具有防卫功能的特化细胞结构,在植物防御、减少蒸腾、授粉媒介吸引、种子散布、次生代谢产物合成与贮存等方面起着重要作用。研究发现MIXTA/MIXTA-like是多种植物表皮细胞分化的关键调控因子。在不同植物中,MIXTA/MIXTA-like作用部位(主要集中在花瓣、叶片、胚珠和子房)和调节方式不同,但最终都是通过调控表皮细胞分化发挥作用。MIXTA/MIXTA-like在表皮毛的形成、角质层生物合成、锥形表皮细胞的分化过程中起着重要的调节作用,其中植物表皮毛发育是一个研究热点。植物表皮毛有多种不同的功能:如叶片被毛是植物抵御取食昆虫的重要表型特征;法国梧桐、杨树、柳树飞絮都是种子成熟过程中表皮毛发育的结果;而黄花蒿中,青蒿素主要在腺毛中合成和储存。因此,开展植物表皮毛发育和调控机制研究具有重要意义。笔者梳理了MIXTA/MIXTA-like基因的特征及其在不同植物表皮细胞分化过程中的生物学功能,阐述了木本植物表皮毛发育调控的分子机制,为加速林木表皮毛发育相关性状的新品种培育提供借鉴。     

山茶科珍稀濒危植物圆籽荷的繁殖生物学研究

圆籽荷是中国特有的单种属稀有植物,历年来对其研究较少.对圆籽荷的分布现状,生境,有性生殖过程,种子散布等进行了观察分析,结果显示,在自然条件下,圆籽荷主要以有性生殖为主,能正常地开花结实,同时在一些环境下存在着分蘖方式的营养繁殖;圆籽荷为严格的异花授粉植物,昆虫主要为蜂类起重要的传粉作用,种子主要靠重力散布.     

Plant retinoblastoma homologues control nuclear proliferation in the female gametophyte

Haploid spores of plants divide mitotically to form multicellular gametophytes. The female spore (megaspore) of most flowering plants develops by means of a well-defined programme into the mature megagametophyte consisting of the egg apparatus and a central cell. We investigated the role of the Arabidopsis retinoblastoma protein homologue and its function as a negative regulator of cell proliferation during megagametophyte development. Here we show that three mutant alleles of the gene for the Arabidopsis retinoblastoma-related protein, RBR1 (ref. 4), are gametophytic lethal. In heterozygous plants 50% of the ovules are aborted when the mutant allele is maternally inherited. The mature unfertilized mutant megagametophyte fails to arrest mitosis and undergoes excessive nuclear proliferation in the embryo sac. Supernumerary nuclei are present at the micropylar end of the megagametophyte, which develops into the egg apparatus and central cell. The central cell nucleus, which gives rise to the endosperm after fertilization, initiates autonomous endosperm development reminiscent of fertilization-independent seed (fis) mutants. Thus, RBR1 has a novel and previously unrecognized function in cell cycle control during gametogenesis and in the repression of autonomous endosperm development.     

紫花地丁开放花和闭锁花繁殖特征的研究

对北京地区一扰动生境中紫花地丁(Viola yedoensis)开放花和闭锁花的产量、结实率和种子质量等繁殖特征进行了比较.开放花在3月初开始开放,雄蕊5枚,具有吸引传粉者开放的花冠等特征.闭锁花4月初开始形成,雄蕊2枚,且与柱头紧密接触,适应闭花受精.在扰动生境中,紫花地丁个体往往形成更多的闭锁花,而且闭锁花的结实率显著高于开放花的结实率.所以,大部分种子都是通过闭锁花闭花受精形成的.但是,开放花产生的种子更大,因而可能具有更高的幼苗存活率.即使在不利生境中,闭锁花也能保障植物繁殖和一定的种子产生.而开放花则产生更多的异交种子以适应新的生境.     

Evolution of plant reproduction: From fusion and dispersal to interaction and communication

Based on the existing data concerning the evolution of the sexual reproduction, it is argued that the processes of sex differentiation and interactions play a key role in evolution. From the beginning environment and organism are unified. In a changing dynamic environment life originates and the interaction between life and environment develops from simple to more complex organisms. Sexual reproduction is introduced after the origin of meiosis and is a key process in evolution. The asexual reproduction process prepares to dispersal. Sexual reproduction process adds the genome renewal and the gamete-gamete interaction. Reproduction and dispersal are connected and the process of reproduction has similarities between asexual and sexual reproduction. Unicellular algae develop the physiological and morphological sex differentiation. Sex differentiation is connected with the way of dispersal. The step to multicellular plants introduces cell isolation after meiosis and by the stay on the mother plant within a cell or organ, plant-cell apoplastic interaction originates and by prolonged stay the plant-plant interaction. This stay influences the type of dispersal. A life cycle with alternation of generations and two moments of dispersal permits plants to go on land. In ferns a shift in the moment of sex differentiation to meiospore happens and the stay of the macrospore leads to the seed plants. In water all types of sexual reproduction, interactions and the alternation of generations are prepared and these are used to conquest land. On land the biotic dispersal is realized. The phylogeny of sexual reproduction reveals that the sex differentiation and interaction are the main causes in the evolution of sexual reproduction. Sexual reproduction shows interactions during gamete fusion, between organism and environment and in multicellular plants between organisms. With respect to other types of interaction as in symbiosis or the nutrient chain, interaction is considered as an important action which is based on a persisting cooperation and points to a push during evolution. The push is expressed as communication： the driving force in the evolution. Based on the interactions between organisms and interactions between organisms and the dynamic environment, communication is considered as a driving force leading to the evolution as explained in the development of plant reproduction. Consequences for reproduction, its regulation and the process of evolution are discussed.     

39种能源植物种子(果实)扫描电镜观察

利用扫描电子显微镜对39种能源植物种子(果实)进行了观察并拍摄了扫描电镜照片。结果表明:种子表面大部分粗糙且无光泽;种子表面呈现各种纹饰:网纹或梯纹、凸起、嚼烂状、多皱、假孔穴、沟、茸毛,一些无纹理,表现出多样性的特点。     

珍稀优良花卉地涌金莲的繁殖研究进展

野生地涌金莲是我国西南地区特有种。本文综述了地涌金莲的繁殖与品种选育,为优良花卉资源开发和利用提供参考。营养繁殖方面,地涌金莲适合分株繁殖,雨季进行分株繁殖十分容易,成活率100%;目前,正在构建高效新的技术体系以培育种苗,如组培快繁技术等;有性繁殖方面,发现地涌金莲是虫媒花植物,有多种昆虫为其有效传粉,胚珠呈倒生型,种子可以萌发。深入分析地涌金莲种子休眠机制和萌发模式,构建高效的育苗方法与技术体系,探索和构建长期有效保存试管苗的方法,有效地维持地涌金莲的遗传多样性,比较营养繁殖与有性繁殖在种群进化的作用等是今后研究的主要方向。     

Expression of the mouse metallothionein mutant ββ-cDNA in the lettuces (Lactuca sativa L.)

Mouse metallothionein (MT) domain mutant ββ-cDNA gene has been inserted into the plant expression vector pGPTVd35S which has herbicide (PPT)-resistance gene bar as a selective marker. The chimeric gene was introduced into the lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. cv Salinas 88) by Agrobacterium-mediated transformation. PCR and Southern blot analysis of some putative transformants indicated that the introduced ββ-cDNA was integrated into lettuce genome and inheritted by sexual reproduction. The expression of ββ gene in lettuce plants was demonstrated by Northern and Western blot analysis. Meanwhile, the zinc content of the transformed lettuce plants is up to 400 μg/g dry weight, remarkably higher than the control plants.     

A plant receptor-like kinase required for both bacterial and fungal symbiosis

Most higher plant species can enter a root symbiosis with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, in which plant carbon is traded for fungal phosphate. This is an ancient symbiosis, which has been detected in fossils of early land plants. In contrast, the nitrogen-fixing root nodule symbioses of plants with bacteria evolved more recently, and are phylogenetically restricted to the rosid I clade of plants. Both symbioses rely on partially overlapping genetic programmes. We have identified the molecular basis for this convergence by cloning orthologous SYMRK ('symbiosis receptor-like kinase') genes from Lotus and pea, which are required for both fungal and bacterial recognition. SYMRK is predicted to have a signal peptide, an extracellular domain comprising leucine-rich repeats, a transmembrane and an intracellular protein kinase domain. Lotus SYMRK is required for a symbiotic signal transduction pathway leading from the perception of microbial signal molecules to rapid symbiosis-related gene activation. The perception of symbiotic fungi and bacteria is mediated by at least one common signalling component, which could have been recruited during the evolution of root nodule symbioses from the already existing arbuscular mycorrhiza symbiosis.     

臭柏果实浸泡液萌发抑制作用及种子吸水特性研究

对臭柏果实浸泡液萌发抑制作用和种子吸水特性进行了试验研究。生物鉴定结果表明,臭柏果实内含有水溶性萌发抑制物质,主要存在于果皮中,其抑制作用由大到小的配列顺序为果皮98、果皮97、完整种子、种子碎物、种皮碎物、种仁碎物;并且随着贮藏年限和分次浸泡时间延长而降低。臭柏果皮内的抑制物质不仅抑制小麦、白菜、苜蓿种子萌发,而且抑制其幼苗的生长。种子、种皮及种仁磨碎物中抑制物质较少或无,并有促进三种指示植物幼苗生长的作用。种子在室温下自来水浸泡3～4h后完成物理吸水阶段,其含水率达到20.0%;24h后为20.04％,37h后仅为25.77％,因此种皮的构造对水分进入有一定阻碍作用。     

Plant genetics. Ancient wild olives in Mediterranean forests

Early domestication and extensive cultivation have meant that staple Mediterranean fruit crops such as olives, grapes and dates exist in wild-looking forms that are secondary derivatives produced by sexual reproduction among cultivated plants (cultivars), which were initially propagated vegetatively. By using genetic markers associated with characters that render plants unsuitable for domestication, we show here that genuinely wild olive trees, which cannot be distinguished morphologically from feral forms, still survive in a few Mediterranean forests. These wild stocks are genetically distinct and more variable than either the crop strains or their derived feral forms, a finding that has important implications for the conservation of these ancient lineages.