Endoscopic exploration of Red Sea coral reefs reveals dense populations of cavity-dwelling sponges

Framework cavities are the largest but least explored coral reef habitat. Previous dive studies of caverns, spaces below plate corals, rubble and artificial cavities suggest that cavity-dwelling (coelobite) filter-feeders are important in the trophodynamics of reefs. Quantitative community data are lacking, however, as the bulk of the narrow crevices interlacing the reef framework are inaccessible to conventional analysis methods. Here we have developed endoscopic techniques to explore Red Sea framework crevices up to 4 m into the carbonate rock, revealing a large internal surface (2.5-7.4 m2 per projected m2 reef) dominated by encrusting filter-feeders. Sponges alone provided up to 60% of coelobite cover, outweighing epi-reefal filter-feeder biomass by two orders of magnitude. Coelobite community filtration removed more than 60% of the phytoplankton in the course of its less than 5-minute passage through the crevices, corresponding to an uptake of roughly 0.9 g carbon m-2 d-1. Mineralization of the largely allochthonous organic material is a principal source of nutrients supporting coral and algal growth. The supply of new material by coelobites may provide a key to understanding the 'coral reef paradox'-a rich ecosystem thriving in nutrient-poor water.     

Assessment of coral bleaching using symbiotic zooxanthellae density and satellite remote sensing data in the Nansha Islands,South China Sea

Coral bleaching,characterized by a significant loss of symbiotic zooxanthellae,is the primary cause of mass coral mortality and reef degradation throughout the world.The characteristics,processes,and resistance of corals to bleaching varies significantly and is dependent on environmental conditions.We documented a mass coral bleaching event in June 2007 at the Meiji and Zhubi Reefs,Nansha Islands (NS),South China Sea using ecological surveys and measurement of coral zooxanthellae density and sea surface temperatures (SST).More than 35 species of corals (between 0-20 m in depth) were bleached.These bleached corals accounted for 15.6% of total corals in the investigated quadrats.The branching corals Pocillopora and Acropora were the most vulnerable species whereas the massive corals Porites and Favia were more tolerant of the high SSTs.Surprisingly,we found no evidence of bleaching in Agariciidae corals suggesting that this family is resistant to thermal stresses.The bleached corals had lost 72%-90% of their symbiotic zooxanthellae.Furthermore,corals that had no visual signs of bleaching had also lost 31%-53% of their zooxanthellae suggesting that most corals were experiencing the early stage of bleaching.The monthly mean SST during June 2007 was 30.8°C,the highest since 1998.Based on measurements of SST and the Hotspots and DHW data (NOAA),we conclude that it the extremely high SSTs triggered this coral bleaching event.Our results suggest that the previously accepted temperature thresholds used to predict coral bleaching based on satellite data are likely to underestimate the extent and intensity of coral bleaching,at least in the NS.     

Estimate of carbonate production by scleractinian corals at Luhuitou fringing reef, Sanya, China

Carbonate production by scleractinian corals not only maintains coral reef growth, but also represents an important source of atmospheric carbon dioxide. In this paper the carbonate production by scler-actinian corals at Luhuitou fringing reef, Sanya, Hainan Island, China, is investigated with an ecological census-based method. Averaged carbonate production is 1.16 ± 0.55 kg·m-2·a-1 and 3.52 ± 1.32 kg·m-2·a-1 on the reef flat and reef slope, respectively, depending on the composition and distribution of cor...     

Heterotrophic plasticity and resilience in bleached corals

Mass coral bleaching events caused by elevated seawater temperatures have resulted in extensive coral mortality throughout the tropics over the past few decades. With continued global warming, bleaching events are predicted to increase in frequency and severity, causing up to 60% coral mortality globally within the next few decades. Although some corals are able to recover and to survive bleaching, the mechanisms underlying such resilience are poorly understood. Here we show that the coral host has a significant role in recovery and resilience. Bleached and recovering Montipora capitata (branching) corals met more than 100% of their daily metabolic energy requirements by markedly increasing their feeding rates and CHAR (per cent contribution of heterotrophically acquired carbon to daily animal respiration), whereas Porites compressa (branching) and Porites lobata (mounding) corals did not. These findings suggest that coral species with high-CHAR capability during bleaching and recovery, irrespective of morphology, will be more resilient to bleaching events over the long term, could become the dominant coral species on reefs, and may help to safeguard affected reefs from potential local and global extinction.     

Interspecies and spatial diversity in the symbiotic zooxanthellae density in corals from northern South China Sea and its relationship to coral reef bleaching

Coral reef bleaching is usually characterized by expulsion of symbiotic zooxanthellae, loss of zooxanthellae pigmentation, or both. We collected 128 samples comprising 39 species of 21 genera of reef-building corals from Luhuitou and Xiaodonghai in Sanya of Hainan Island and Daya Bay of Guangdong Province, respectively, and analyzed the symbiotic zooxanthellae population density. The results show that： （1） the symbiotic zooxanthella density varies from 0.67×10^6 to 8.48×10^6 cell/cm^2, displaying significant interspecies variability, with branch corals usually having relatively less zooxanthellae （ranging from 0.67×10^6 to 2.47×10^6 cell/cm^2） than massive species （from 1.0×10^6 to 8.48×10^6 cell/cm^2）; （2） corals inhabiting within 4 m water depth have higher levels of symbiotic zooxanthellae than those living at the bottom （-7 m depth） of the reef area; （3） there is no discernable difference in the zooxanthellae density between corals from relatively high latitude Daya Bay （-22°N） and those from relatively low latitude Sanya （-18°N） at comparable sea surface temperatures （SST）; （4） in partially-bleached corals, the density of zooxanthellae shows the following order： healthy-looking part〉 semi-bleached part 〉 bleached part. Based on the above results, we suggest that （1） the zooxanthellae density difference between branching and massive coral species is the main cause that branching corals are more vulnerable to bleaching than massive corals. For example, symbiotic zooxanthellae levels are low in branching Acropora and Pocillopora corals and thus these corals are more susceptible to bleaching and mortality; （2） symbiotic zooxanthellae density can also be affected by environmental conditions, such as sediment loads, diving-related turbidity, and aquaculture-related nitrate and phosphate input, and their increase may reduce symbiotic zooxanthellae density in corals.     

Effects of temperature,hypoxia, ammonia and nitrate on the bleaching among three coral species

Coral bleaching, which is defined as the loss of colour in corals due to the loss of their symbiotic algae (commonly called zooxanthellae) or pigments or both, is occurring globally at increasing rates, and its harm becomes more and more serious during these two decades. The significance of these bleaching events to the health of coral reef ecosystems is extreme, as bleached corals exhibited high mortality, reduced fecundity and productivity and increased susceptibility to diseases. This decreased coral fitness is easily to lead to reef degradation and ultimately to the breakdown of the coral reef ecosystems. Recently, the reasons leading to coral bleaching are thought to be as follows: too high or too low temperature, excess ultraviolet exposure, heavy metal pollution, cyanide poison and seasonal cycle. To date there has been little knowledge of whether mariculture can result in coral bleaching and which substance has the worst effect on corals. And no research was conducted on the effect of hypoxia on corals. To address these questions, effects of tem- perature, hypoxia, ammonia and nitrate on bleaching of three coral species were studied through examination of morphology and the measurement of the number of symbiotic algae of three coral species Acropora nobilis, Palythoa sp. and Alveopora verrilliana. Results showed that increase in temperature and decrease in dissolved oxygen could lead to increasing number of symbiotic algae and more serious bleaching. In addition, the concentration of 0.001 mmol/L ammonia or nitrate could increase significantly the expulsion of the symbiotic algae of the three coral species. Except for Acropora nobilis, the numbers of symbiotic algae of other two corals did not significantly increase with the increasing concentration of ammonia and nitrate. Furthermore, different hosts have different stress susceptibilities on coral bleaching.     

一个大陆坡环礁—南海华光珊瑚环礁的沉积相模式及其演化趋势

华光珊瑚环礁是一典型的大陆坡环礁,区别于大洋环礁和大陆架环礁。其发育既受全球板块运动,又受海面升降运动的控制。现代环礁的结构是在冰期时形成的先成台地之上复盖着一薄层的全新世礁相沉积。东亚季风的作用使礁形成各向相似的沉积相带。环礁礁冠与泻湖宽度之比可作为现代环礁成熟度的定量标志。华光环礁目前尚处于幼年期。     

涠洲岛珊瑚礁生态环境条件初步研究

分析涠洲岛沿岸与珊瑚礁发育关系密切的水温、水深、光照、波浪、海流、潮汐、pH值、盐度、溶解氧、磷酸盐、基岩基底、珊瑚礁块基底、珊瑚砂砾基底、虫黄藻、褐藻等生态环境条件,探讨这些生态变化条件的变化规律,及其对珊瑚生长、发育的影响。     

Ecological consequences of major hydrodynamic disturbances on coral reefs

A recent tsunami and an apparent increase in the frequency of severe tropical storms underscore the need to understand and predict the ecological consequences of major hydrodynamic disturbances. Reef corals provide the habitat structure that sustains the high biodiversity of tropical reefs, and thus provide the foundation for the ecosystem goods and services that are critical to many tropical societies. Here we integrate predictions from oceanographic models with engineering theory, to predict the dislodgement of benthic reef corals during hydrodynamic disturbances. This generalizes earlier work, by incorporating colonies of any shape and by explicitly examining the effects of hydrodynamic gradients on coral assemblage structure. A field test shows that this model accurately predicts changes in the mechanical vulnerability of coral colonies, and thus their size and shape, with distance from the reef crest. This work provides a general framework for understanding and predicting the effects of hydrodynamic disturbances on coral reef communities; such disturbances have a major role in determining species zonation and coexistence on coral reefs, and are critical determinants of how coral assemblages will respond to changes in the frequency and intensity of tropical storms associated with a changing climate.     

珊瑚礁相关病毒的研究进展

珊瑚礁被称为海洋中的“热带雨林”,是海洋生态系统中的核心组成部分之一。珊瑚礁病毒包含珊瑚本身感染的病毒和珊瑚共生生物（如藻类、细菌等）感染的病毒,对于珊瑚礁健康与疾病、生长与死亡起着独特而重要的作用,在维持珊瑚礁生态系统的物质循环和能量流动等生态学功能方面起着潜在作用。由于技术的局限以及关注度较低等原因,有关珊瑚礁病毒的研究较少。近年来,随着高通量测序技术的发展,宏转录组和宏基因组逐渐成为研究珊瑚礁病毒多样性及其生态学功能的重要方法之一。本文对国内外相关研究进行总结和归纳,拟为珊瑚礁病毒后续研究提供新的方向和思路,同时指导我国珊瑚礁的保护以及修复。     

Communication arising. Is coral bleaching really adaptive?

From an experiment in which corals are transplanted between two depths on a Panamanian coral reef, Baker infers that bleaching may sometimes help reef corals to survive environmental change. Although Baker's results hint at further mechanisms by which reef-building corals may acclimatize to changing light conditions, we do not consider that the evidence supports his inference.     

涠洲岛珊瑚礁特点、演变及保护与修复对策的思考

涠洲岛珊瑚礁最早形成于约7 000年前的末次海侵,是中国大陆沿海成礁珊瑚分布最北缘的典型边缘珊瑚礁（Marginal Coral Reefs）,与区域内其他珊瑚礁缺少生态关联,其特征不同于热带珊瑚礁,即块状珊瑚占优势。20多年来,涠洲岛珊瑚礁持续退化,枝状珊瑚大量死亡,石珊瑚盖度急剧降低,反映珊瑚礁良好状况的指标生物如鹦嘴鱼、蝴蝶鱼等的数量大幅减少。近10年来,珊瑚虽未出现异常死亡现象,但珊瑚自然修复不明显,表明珊瑚补充不足。功能性植食性鱼类的缺乏,显示珊瑚礁恢复力不足。涠洲岛珊瑚礁国家级海洋公园的建立,体现了保护涠洲岛珊瑚礁的政治意愿。只有恢复鹦嘴鱼等功能性植食性鱼类的数量,才能恢复和增强珊瑚礁固有恢复力,进而促进涠洲岛珊瑚礁的自然恢复。人为修复可采取移植珊瑚断枝的方式,并以实现生态、经济和社会增益为目标,构建能应对人为干预且能持续演化的珊瑚礁。     

涠洲岛西局部造礁石珊瑚盖度和大小频率分布

本研究通过分析珊瑚大小频率分布,探讨涠洲岛西局部造礁石珊瑚群落结构特点和种群动态,以了解珊瑚的生活史和所经历的变化。所分析的珊瑚大小数据来自2021年2月24-26日开展的涠洲岛西珊瑚礁的造礁石珊瑚样带调查,利用对数转换将珊瑚大小变换为珊瑚迭代,然后作直方图对珊瑚大小频率分布加以分析。分析结果表明,片状的牡丹珊瑚属Pavona和块状的滨珊瑚属Porites、角蜂巢珊瑚属Favites、盘星珊瑚属Dipsastraea等在涠洲岛西局部珊瑚群落中占优势(珊瑚面积和珊瑚个数)。对数转换的大小频率分布呈正态分布,偏斜不明显,变异系数小于0.5,表明这些珊瑚目前处于正常的自然补充、生长和死亡过程。涠洲岛西局部造礁石珊瑚盖度降低,主要是因为个体大的枝状珊瑚锐减。     

Confronting the coral reef crisis

The worldwide decline of coral reefs calls for an urgent reassessment of current management practices. Confronting large-scale crises requires a major scaling-up of management efforts based on an improved understanding of the ecological processes that underlie reef resilience. Managing for improved resilience, incorporating the role of human activity in shaping ecosystems, provides a basis for coping with uncertainty, future changes and ecological surprises. Here we review the ecological roles of critical functional groups (for both corals and reef fishes) that are fundamental to understanding resilience and avoiding phase shifts from coral dominance to less desirable, degraded ecosystems. We identify striking biogeographic differences in the species richness and composition of functional groups, which highlight the vulnerability of Caribbean reef ecosystems. These findings have profound implications for restoration of degraded reefs, management of fisheries, and the focus on marine protected areas and biodiversity hotspots as priorities for conservation.     

中新世礁相碳酸盐岩沉积构成及成礁模式——以西沙海域为例

 结合最新钻井、地震资料,剖析了中新世生物礁体沉积构成以及成礁演化模式。揭示了研究区造礁生物主要为钙藻,其次为六射珊瑚,附礁生物以有孔虫和介形虫为主。根据是否发育造礁生物将岩石分为礁格架-骨架岩和非礁格架-骨架岩2类,前者包括珊瑚藻格架和珊瑚骨架焦白云岩及红藻-仙掌藻白云岩2种,非礁骨架岩分为生物碎屑灰岩、粒泥灰岩和泥粒灰岩3种。沉积相包括礁格架相、礁坪相、礁后滩相、泻湖相和生物碎屑滩相5种。中新世生物礁是在相对海平面不断上升的背景下沉积演化的,属于加积-退积型生物礁沉积旋回,礁体发育期可分为奠基、初始繁盛、顶峰、暴露衰退4个阶段,暴露衰退末期发生强烈的白云化作用,淡水淋滤溶蚀作用形成较好的储集层。     

Coral cover as a proxy of disturbance:A case study of the biodiversity of the hermatypic corals in Yongxing Island, Xisha Islands in the South China Sea

The Yongxing Island is the biggest island of Xisha Islands in the middle part of the South China Sea. It occupies 1.8 square kilometers of land area and has permanent residence on it. There are only a few papers on the coral community of the Xisha Islands, reporting the species composition, structure and zonations of the hermatypic coral community in 1970s. The present study describes the hermatypic coral community based on the quadrat survey after almost 30 years in Yongxing Island in August 2002. It was the first time to present the percent cover data of live corals of Yongxing Island via a systematic scheme of quantitative quadrat sampling. The average total percent cover of the live coral is 68.4%. We found the total percent cover (TPC) could be an idea proxy of the overall disturbance regime impinging on the coral community. TPC can be used as an integrated measure of disturbance to coral reef. Using this surrogate, the best fit relation between TPC of the live corals and species richness, species diversity, or the species evenness is the unimodal second-order polymorphic parabola equation. This result is expected by the intermediate disturbance hypothesis (IDH). From the fitted parabola equations, we calculated the best TPCs corresponding to the maximal species richness, the highest species diversity, or the most evenness respectively. They are surprisingly stabilized between 55% and 58%. Coralcover is the basic parameter widely available for most observation, research or monitoring programs. The good qualitative characteristics of percent cover provide powerful tool for the experimental, theoretical and modeling studies of coral reef in response to the disturbance.     

On biogeomorphology of Luhuitou fringing reef of Sanya City, Hainan Island, China

Based on comprehensive survey of 6 transects on Luhuitou fringing reef in Sanya City of Hainan Island, China, some features of its biogeomorphologic processes were found, including ( i ) three basic biogeomorphologic units: inner reef flat, outer reef flat and reef slope; (ii) two important biogeomorphologic boundary lines: up limit for live flat coral growing between inner and outer reef flats is Mean Lower Low Water of tropic tide ± 15 cm; the break in slope between reef flat and reef slope is Theoretical Lowest Tide±15 cm; (iii) three types of reef flat profiles in response to distinctive Holocene sea level changes and dynamic condition: Luhuitou type responds to falling sea level and low wave energy; Xiaodonghai type to falling sea sevel and high wave energy; type for atolls of Nansha Islands to stable sea level and low wave energy; (iv) hermatypic coral community is the most essential member in coral reef ecosystem and plays the most important role in biogeomorphologic process. Over the past 30 years Luhuitou fringing reef was severely destroyed by human activities, its biogeomorphologic function severely weakened, and it needs urgent management and protection.     

涠洲岛珊瑚岸礁的沉积特征

涠洲岛珊瑚岸礁发育根基于火山岩,除了冬、春的低温影响外,环境因素是适合于珊瑚生长的。在岸礁区有两个沉积带:珊瑚生成带和火山岩海底礁坪。陆地的有机废物移到海底而珊瑚移到陆地,但在水能和环境的影响下,它们形成混合沉积,这种沉积主要分布在岸礁的平面和海滩底部。由于属于岸礁形成早期,涠洲岛约从3100年前就一直不断生长,涠洲岛的海滩岩石位于高于海平面5米的位置。     

Self-organization of dissolved organic matter to micelle-like microparticles in river water

In aquatic systems, the concept of the 'microbial loop' is invoked to describe the conversion of dissolved organic matter to particulate organic matter by bacteria. This process mediates the transfer of energy and matter from dissolved organic matter to higher trophic levels, and therefore controls (together with primary production) the productivity of aquatic systems. Here we report experiments on laboratory incubations of sterile filtered river water in which we find that up to 25% of the dissolved organic carbon (DOC) aggregates abiotically to particles of diameter 0.4-0.8 micrometres, at rates similar to bacterial growth. Diffusion drives aggregation of low- to high-molecular-mass DOC and further to larger micelle-like microparticles. The chemical composition of these microparticles suggests their potential use as food by planktonic bacterivores. This pathway is apparent from differences in the stable carbon isotope compositions of picoplankton and the microparticles. A large fraction of dissolved organic matter might therefore be channelled through microparticles directly to higher trophic levels--bypassing the microbial loop--suggesting that current concepts of carbon conversion in aquatic systems require revision.     

基于遗传珊瑚礁优化算法的负载均衡问题

基于珊瑚礁优化算法, 通过在种群的每次进化过程中引入遗传算法中的交叉和变异算子, 提出一种遗传珊瑚礁优化算法, 并将改进的遗传珊瑚礁优化算法运用到负载均衡中, 有效解决了算法过早收敛的问题, 提升了算法的优化性能. 对比经典遗传算法、 珊瑚礁优化算法等群智能算法, 在CloudSim上仿真实验结果表明, 遗传珊瑚礁优化算法优化负载均衡策略取得了满意的结果, 提升了资源能耗利用率, 均衡了控制策略.