Flying in a flock comes at a cost in pigeons

Flying birds often form flocks, with social, navigational and anti-predator implications. Further, flying in a flock can result in aerodynamic benefits, thus reducing power requirements, as demonstrated by a reduction in heart rate and wingbeat frequency in pelicans flying in a V-formation. But how general is an aerodynamic power reduction due to group-flight? V-formation flocks are limited to moderately steady flight in relatively large birds, and may represent a special case. What are the aerodynamic consequences of flying in the more usual 'cluster' flock? Here we use data from innovative back-mounted Global Positioning System (GPS) and 6-degrees-of-freedom inertial sensors to show that pigeons (1) maintain powered, banked turns like aircraft, imposing dorsal accelerations of up to 2g, effectively doubling body weight and quadrupling induced power requirements; (2) increase flap frequency with increases in all conventional aerodynamic power requirements; and (3) increase flap frequency when flying near, particularly behind, other birds. Therefore, unlike V-formation pelicans, pigeons do not gain an aerodynamic advantage from flying in a flock. Indeed, the increased flap frequency, whether due to direct aerodynamic interactions or requirements for increased stability or control, suggests a considerable energetic cost to flight in a tight cluster flock.     

A critical ligamentous mechanism in the evolution of avian flight

Despite recent advances in aerodynamic, neuromuscular and kinematic aspects of avian flight and dozens of relevant fossil discoveries, the origin of aerial locomotion and the transition from limbs to wings continue to be debated. Interpreting this transition depends on understanding the mechanical interplay of forces in living birds, particularly at the shoulder where most wing motion takes place. Shoulder function depends on a balance of forces from muscles, ligaments and articular cartilages, as well as inertial, gravitational and aerodynamic loads on the wing. Here we show that the force balance system of the shoulder evolved from a primarily muscular mechanism to one in which the acrocoracohumeral ligament has a critical role. Features of the shoulder of Mesozoic birds and closely related theropod dinosaurs indicate that the evolution of flight preceded the acquisition of the ligament-based force balance system and that some basal birds are intermediate in shoulder morphology.     

How swifts control their glide performance with morphing wings

Gliding birds continually change the shape and size of their wings, presumably to exploit the profound effect of wing morphology on aerodynamic performance. That birds should adjust wing sweep to suit glide speed has been predicted qualitatively by analytical glide models, which extrapolated the wing's performance envelope from aerodynamic theory. Here we describe the aerodynamic and structural performance of actual swift wings, as measured in a wind tunnel, and on this basis build a semi-empirical glide model. By measuring inside and outside swifts' behavioural envelope, we show that choosing the most suitable sweep can halve sink speed or triple turning rate. Extended wings are superior for slow glides and turns; swept wings are superior for fast glides and turns. This superiority is due to better aerodynamic performance-with the exception of fast turns. Swept wings are less effective at generating lift while turning at high speeds, but can bear the extreme loads. Finally, our glide model predicts that cost-effective gliding occurs at speeds of 8-10 m s(-1), whereas agility-related figures of merit peak at 15-25 m s(-1). In fact, swifts spend the night ('roost') in flight at 8-10 m s(-1) (ref. 11), thus our model can explain this choice for a resting behaviour. Morphing not only adjusts birds' wing performance to the task at hand, but could also control the flight of future aircraft.     

翼尖形状对双后掠飞翼纵向气动特性的影响

以双后掠飞翼为基础外形,兼顾隐身性能,对其翼尖进行改形设计。利用数值模拟方法研究翼尖平面形状对双后掠飞翼布局纵向气动特性和纵向静稳定性的影响。结果表明：剪切翼尖可以提供向前的推力、减小飞翼的阻力,提高最大升阻比,增强纵向静稳定性。不同形状的剪切翼尖影响效果不同,巡航状态下,相比于基础构型,剪切翼尖最大可以使双后掠飞翼阻力减少7.9%,最大升阻比提高11.9%,纵向静稳定裕度增加10.8%。研究结果对双后掠飞翼布局翼尖形状的选取有一定的参考意义。     

高速滑坡飞行气动特性的风洞试验研究

国内外已发生的许多大型高速滑坡在近程活动阶段均呈现飞行运动，高速滑体如同机翼一样，将产生机翼效应。这种空气动力学效应不仅使滑坡飞行得更远，而且使位能更多地转变成滑坡飞行的功能，使滑体获得更大的速度，将高速滑体制成相似的机翼模型，进行风洞试验，即可测定滑坡凌空飞行的空气动力学参数，从而计算大型高速滑坡凌空飞行的空气动力升力、飞行速度和飞行距离等。风洞试验结果表明：高速滑坡体的几何形与结构、飞行姿态对高速滑坡飞行气动特性有显著影响，而飞行速度对气动特性的影响甚小。     

高海况机翼波浪地面效应数值模拟与分析

针对三维等直机翼型(NACA0015),采用计算流体动力学(CFD)分析方法,以非定常不可压缩流动N-S方程和2阶RNGk-ε湍流模型,对高海况波浪地面效应进行了数值模拟与分析.首先在二维情况下数值模拟分析了波浪地面效应,讨论了计及当地风速和波浪行进速度的必要性,同时分析了高海况下波浪地面效应翼型气动力系数随飞行高度变化趋势及原因.在此基础上,计算分析了三维情况下,等直机翼在不同航向与风向角时的气动力系数及滚转力矩的变化,并重点对侧风影响下的滚转力矩产生机理及变化特点进行了论述.通过数值模拟,初步探讨了高海况下波浪地面效应对等直机翼气动特性的影响规律,为深入研究高海况对地效飞行器设计的影响提供了依据.     

非均匀来流下飞翼布局气动特性模拟方法研究

飞翼布局的非均匀来流会使得飞翼的流场不均匀,从而影响其气动性能。通过引入"网格速度"来计入非均匀来流的影响,求解非定常Navier-Stokes方程,实现了非均匀来流下飞翼布局气动特性的数值模拟。首先采用该方法对NACA0006翼型非均匀来流下的气动力响应进行了计算,计算结果与文献计算结果吻合良好。进一步对某飞翼布局飞机在非均匀来流下的气动力响应过程进行了数值模拟,得到了不同振荡速度比率下飞翼布局气动力系数随相位角变化曲线,结果表明,振荡速度比率越大,升力响应的幅值越大,非均匀来流对飞行器气动特性影响越明显。     

柔性扑翼的模型建立及其功率研究

在原有匀速刚性模型的基础上,提出考虑了扑翼扑动速率变化和形状变化的柔性扑翼模型,使之更接近鸟翼真实扑动情况.模拟计算了时柔性扑翼气动功率及扑动效率随着扑动角、来流速度等参数的变化,从气动角度解释了为何鸟在不同的飞行阶段扑翼规律各不相同,为柔性扑翼飞行器的设计提供了理论依据.     

无舵面飞机变弯度机翼承载/变形一体化设计

为通过机翼弯度变化实现对无舵面飞机的控制、改善其气动性能,需要协调结构变形、力学承载和轻质设计三者之间的关系。针对传统机械驱动机构造价高、重量大和智能材料驱动机构承载能力弱的缺陷,通过承载/变形一体化设计方法,充分考虑机翼气动载荷的特点,协调配置机械驱动机构与智能材料驱动机构,结合拓扑优化设计,提出一种无舵面飞机变弯度机翼承载/变形一体化设计方案。结果表明,无舵面飞机可在不同飞行环境下改变机翼弯度以承受多种载荷条件,对提高飞机的飞行性能、飞行效率和适应飞行环境的能力具有积极意义。     

飞行器概念设计中多学科优化模型的研究

多学科优化技术的发展有效地提高了飞机的设计水平,同时提高了设计人员对非常规布局飞机的设计能力。以一种双后掠飞翼布局飞机为研究对象,建立新的优化模型对其进行气动、结构优化。优化过程分为系统级优化和学科级优化。在系统级优化中,航程定义为飞机全局性能指标。在学科级优化模型中,把升阻比和展向气动载荷分布的综合气动性能作气动学科优化目标,结构重量作为结构优化目标。优化结果表明,优化模型可以高效的运行,优化方案更接近最优解。     

飞行汽车机翼折叠系统机构运动学分析

为延长飞行汽车的飞行时间及实现飞行汽车可以在空中飞行模式与陆地行驶模式下正常工作,在根据升力公式对飞行汽车机翼进行设计选型后,对机翼折叠、回收机构进行设计并基于复数矢量法建立机翼折叠、回收机构运动学模型,使用MATLAB分析计算了机构关键杆件的角位移、角速度、角加速度变化情况,并用Adams对机构进行运动仿真分析。分析结果表明：机翼折叠机构与回收机构的角位移、角速度、角加速度图像均未出现激增或骤降,机构结构设计合理,可实现平滑稳定运动,运动特性良好。其中,通过控制折叠机构驱动杆件由83.25°偏转至116.75°实现折叠外翼90°的偏转。通过控制回收机构驱动滑块位移516.6 mm实现机翼90°的展开。最终在30 s内完成机翼折叠及回收作业。     

某跑车尾翼外形变化对气动升力影响的仿真分析

为研究汽车行驶时,气动升力随着车速的提高,对汽车的操纵稳定性和动力性的影响,研究气动升力的附加装置.以一跑车模型的尾翼为基础,采用一种修正湍流模型的数值计算方法,探讨了外形、攻角、翼面凹坑以及支架形式对尾翼表现的影响.结果表明:后负升力翼产生的负升力与外形和支架形式有很大关系,且随着攻角的增大而增加,而翼面凹坑能起到增加负升力的作用.     

The avian nature of the brain and inner ear of Archaeopteryx

Archaeopteryx, the earliest known flying bird (avialan) from the Late Jurassic period, exhibits many shared primitive characters with more basal coelurosaurian dinosaurs (the clade including all theropods more bird-like than Allosaurus), such as teeth, a long bony tail and pinnate feathers. However, Archaeopteryx possessed asymmetrical flight feathers on its wings and tail, together with a wing feather arrangement shared with modern birds. This suggests some degree of powered flight capability but, until now, little was understood about the extent to which its brain and special senses were adapted for flight. We investigated this problem by computed tomography scanning and three-dimensional reconstruction of the braincase of the London specimen of Archaeopteryx. Here we show the reconstruction of the braincase from which we derived endocasts of the brain and inner ear. These suggest that Archaeopteryx closely resembled modern birds in the dominance of the sense of vision and in the possession of expanded auditory and spatial sensory perception in the ear. We conclude that Archaeopteryx had acquired the derived neurological and structural adaptations necessary for flight. An enlarged forebrain suggests that it had also developed enhanced somatosensory integration with these special senses demanded by a lifestyle involving flying ability.     

斜置飞翼翼型气动性能的研究

斜置飞翼是一种具有亚音速和超声速巡航能力的可变后掠角飞机。本文根据斜置飞翼的飞行特点和气动特性,选用了相对弯度、相对厚度等参数不同的两种翼型。通过数值模拟分析,对比两种翼型在不同迎角和雷诺数下的空气动力性能,结果表明翼型2的气动性能优于翼型1。     

近空间飞行器机翼动态可靠性分析

为保证飞行器的结构可靠和飞行安全，开展近空间飞行器机翼结构动态可靠性分析和寿命预测是十分必 要的，基于近空间飞行器机翼受力分析，在考虑随机载荷和强度变化下给出了机翼动态可靠性分析的新方法。 首先分析了飞行器机翼截面的剪切应力、拉压应力和相当应力的计算; 然后考虑气动载荷作用次数用泊松随机 过程表征; 在机翼强度干涉理论的分析结构强度的基础上，提出截尾正态分布描述气动载荷的新方案，建立了 机翼动态可靠性模型，给出了可靠性指标; 分析了强度退化和飞行动态对可靠性的影响，以给出保证飞行器结 构可靠性的基本要求，为结构可靠性控制器设计提供参考。仿真结果表明，在实际飞行中若要保证飞行器的结 构可靠性，应尽量避免飞行速度过快增加及负迎角和大迎角，条件允许的情况下适当增加飞行高度。     

Energy saving in flight formation

Many species of large bird fly together in formation, perhaps because flight power demands and energy expenditure can be reduced when the birds fly at an optimal spacing, or because orientation is improved by communication within groups. We have measured heart rates as an estimate of energy expenditure in imprinted great white pelicans (Pelecanus onocrotalus) trained to fly in 'V' formation, and show that these birds save a significant amount of energy by flying in formation. This advantage is probably a principal reason for the evolution of flight formation in large birds that migrate in groups.     

昆翅在飞行中的动态形变

通过理论模化途径研究昆翅在飞行中的动态形变机制.设计翅气动力试验平台,验证翅准静态形变影响气动力的"柔性楔形效应"理论解释.探讨昆翅的变刚度特性表明,弦向刚度分布规律符合二项式函数时具有优越性和现实性,进而指出昆姻结构的变刚度特性是产生高升力的基本条件.建立了柔性翅的简化力学模型,通过坐标变换法求解在气动力和惯性力共同...     

串联驱动变弯度机翼设计与气动性能分析

针对飞行性能要求,采用NACA4412翼型设计了一种串联驱动变弯度机翼方案。将机翼沿弦向分为5个翼段,前缘部分为主承力结构固定段,后缘4段翼面由4个舵机实现串联驱动。偏转翼段内部采用空间五面体桁架结构,表面敷设复合材料弹性蒙皮。翼段间采用连杆止动以限制相对转角。建立了机翼的运动学分析模型,计算了变弯度机翼的作动速度。建立了机翼的气动分析模型,对4个典型飞行工况的气动性能进行了分析,并与传统舵面机翼性能进行对比。研究表明,在相同飞行工况下,弦向四级串联驱动变弯度机翼的作动时长仅为传统机翼的25%。起飞阶段升阻比增大71.94%,滚转机动时力矩增大12.46%,进近阶段升力增大11.19%,接地后减速阶段阻力增大104.83%。串联驱动变弯度机翼相对传统舵面机翼具有更优的操纵特性和气动性能。     

倾转翼无人机返航过渡段气动分析与优化

倾转翼无人机是兼有固定翼飞机和直升机优点的一种新型旋翼无人飞行器,但其过渡段的气动特性存在非线性、强耦合的特点。基于动量源方法建立了倾转翼无人机返航过渡段的数值模拟方法,经单独旋翼和Georgia-Tech模型算例验证动量源方法的准确性后,结合滑移网格技术模拟倾转翼无人机返航段并进行气动分析,通过调整旋翼转速、倾转角速度,使其定高倾转完成的时间从9.20s缩短为4.46s,在此基础上通过MATLAB不同函数拟合曲线编写入动量源,对比得到返航段走廊曲线。计算结果表明利用拟合曲线可以使其更平稳地定高倾转,使倾转翼无人机的返航过渡段受力曲线更加光滑,该方法得到的结果为控制倾转翼无人机返航过渡段的稳定性提供了理论依据。     

A fundamental avian wing-stroke provides a new perspective on the evolution of flight

The evolution of avian flight remains one of biology's major controversies, with a long history of functional interpretations of fossil forms given as evidence for either an arboreal or cursorial origin of flight. Despite repeated emphasis on the 'wing-stroke' as a necessary avenue of investigation for addressing the evolution of flight, no empirical data exist on wing-stroke dynamics in an experimental evolutionary context. Here we present the first comparison of wing-stroke kinematics of the primary locomotor modes (descending flight and incline flap-running) that lead to level-flapping flight in juvenile ground birds throughout development. We offer results that are contrary both to popular perception and inferences from other studies. Starting shortly after hatching and continuing through adulthood, ground birds use a wing-stroke confined to a narrow range of less than 20 degrees , when referenced to gravity, that directs aerodynamic forces about 40 degrees above horizontal, permitting a 180 degrees range in the direction of travel. Based on our results, we put forth an ontogenetic-transitional wing hypothesis that posits that the incremental adaptive stages leading to the evolution of avian flight correspond behaviourally and morphologically to transitional stages observed in ontogenetic forms.