Frequency of word-use predicts rates of lexical evolution throughout Indo-European history

Greek speakers say "omicronupsilonrho", Germans "schwanz" and the French "queue" to describe what English speakers call a 'tail', but all of these languages use a related form of 'two' to describe the number after one. Among more than 100 Indo-European languages and dialects, the words for some meanings (such as 'tail') evolve rapidly, being expressed across languages by dozens of unrelated words, while others evolve much more slowly--such as the number 'two', for which all Indo-European language speakers use the same related word-form. No general linguistic mechanism has been advanced to explain this striking variation in rates of lexical replacement among meanings. Here we use four large and divergent language corpora (English, Spanish, Russian and Greek) and a comparative database of 200 fundamental vocabulary meanings in 87 Indo-European languages to show that the frequency with which these words are used in modern language predicts their rate of replacement over thousands of years of Indo-European language evolution. Across all 200 meanings, frequently used words evolve at slower rates and infrequently used words evolve more rapidly. This relationship holds separately and identically across parts of speech for each of the four language corpora, and accounts for approximately 50% of the variation in historical rates of lexical replacement. We propose that the frequency with which specific words are used in everyday language exerts a general and law-like influence on their rates of evolution. Our findings are consistent with social models of word change that emphasize the role of selection, and suggest that owing to the ways that humans use language, some words will evolve slowly and others rapidly across all languages.     

Genetic evidence for the spread of agriculture in Europe by demic diffusion

European agriculture originated in the Near East about 9,000 years ago. The Neolithic reached almost all areas suitable for agriculture by 5,000 yr BP (before present). The routes and times of the spread of agriculture through Europe are relatively well established, but not its manner of spreading. This could have been by cultural diffusion with few genetic consequences. By contrast, Ammerman and Cavalli-Sforza proposed that the spread of farming increased local population densities, causing demic expansion into new territory and diffusive gene flow between the neolithic farmers and mesolithic groups. We have now tested observed genetic patterns against expectations derived from the demic expansion hypothesis. We found significant partial correlations of genetic distances with a distance matrix especially designed to represent the spread of agriculture on that continent, when geographic distances are held constant. These findings support the hypothesis of Ammerman and Cavalli-Sforza and invite further investigation into Renfrew's hypothesis on the origin of the Indo-European languages.     

谓语形容词和动补结构中补语词性的再审视——以分布形态学为视角

由于汉语没有像英语及其他印欧语那样具备形态变化,词不好划类。分布形态学理论的出现为词性问题提供了一个新的研究视角。根据该理论,词及词性的概念不是基本概念,词在语言单位中没有特殊地位,词性是由词在句法结构中所处的位置决定的,取决于允准它的功能语类。鉴此,汉语作谓语的词和动补复合词的第二个成分不是形容词,而是动词。     

藏语对吐火罗语的若干影响

文章对爱德华·赫尔曼先生的《吐火罗语残卷》进行译注,利用藏语和吐火罗语的语法、借词等方面的比较研究,证实藏语对吐火罗语的影响,对于吐火罗语在印欧语中位置的确立有一定的借鉴意义。     

浅谈课堂上德语语言教学方法

德语（Deutsch）属于印欧语系日耳曼语族西日耳曼语支下的一门语言,在我国归纳在小语种的范畴。但最近十来年,学习德语的热潮逐年高涨,如何让一门对大家都很陌生的语言,在课堂上呈现出它的独特魅力,激发学生的学习热情,需要教师不断的摸索和积累。     

论词类划分中功能标准与形式标准的结合——从藏语词类划分说起

词类划分的标准是一个古老的话题。欧洲人根据形态发达的印欧语特点,提出形态标准;北大教授朱德熙先生,从汉语＂没有严格意义上的形态＂的实际出发,提出词类划分的功能标准,认为功能标准适合所有语言,并列举俄语借词的例子。文章以藏语名词和动词为例,指出方法简捷,易于理解,易于操作,是藏语词类划分的重要选择。     

Placing late Neanderthals in a climatic context

Attempts to place Palaeolithic finds within a precise climatic framework are complicated by both uncertainty over the radiocarbon calibration beyond about 21,500 14C years bp and the absence of a master calendar chronology for climate events from reference archives such as Greenland ice cores or speleothems. Here we present an alternative approach, in which 14C dates of interest are mapped directly onto the palaeoclimate record of the Cariaco Basin by means of its 14C series, circumventing calendar age model and correlation uncertainties, and placing dated events in the millennial-scale climate context of the last glacial period. This is applied to different sets of dates from levels with Mousterian artefacts, presumably produced by late Neanderthals, from Gorham's Cave in Gibraltar: first, generally accepted estimates of about 32,000 14C years bp for the uppermost Mousterian levels; second, a possible extended Middle Palaeolithic occupation until about 28,000 14C years bp; and third, more contentious evidence for persistence until about 24,000 14C years bp. This study shows that the three sets translate to different scenarios on the role of climate in Neanderthal extinction. The first two correspond to intervals of general climatic instability between stadials and interstadials that characterized most of the Middle Pleniglacial and are not coeval with Heinrich Events. In contrast, if accepted, the youngest date indicates that late Neanderthals may have persisted up to the onset of a major environmental shift, which included an expansion in global ice volume and an increased latitudinal temperature gradient. More generally, our radiocarbon climatostratigraphic approach can be applied to any 'snapshot' date from discontinuous records in a variety of deposits and can become a powerful tool in evaluating the climatic signature of critical intervals in Late Pleistocene human evolution.     

感悟外语学习对语言研究的开拓

随着中国经济贸易国际化，国人眼下正在掀起一波学习外语潮。笔者仅从开拓语言研究的角度，感悟学习外语对其有着很好的帮助。尽管中国文化有着五千年历史的深厚底蕴，然而人类语方的开发仅局限于此是不够的。为此，笔者在学习外语时发现其对现代汉语中词源、字源及了解古今中外语言对语言研究很有借鉴和帮助，对探讨模糊语言学很有启示，对研究语言、词汇在世界上的分布情况能为词源研究提供有力佐证。概言之。学习外语对于拓宽本民族语言研究有着非常积极的作用。     

菠菜性别差异NUPTs序列的克隆及分析

质体DNA向核基因组转移能够形成核质体DNA,核质体DNA序列的插入是推动动植物基因组及染色体组演化的重要动力.但是核质体DNA的插入和植物性染色体起源及演化之间的关系仍不清楚.以雌雄异株植物菠菜为材料,利用基因组消减杂交技术筛选分离菠菜雌雄基因组差异的NUPTs序列,并进行验证和分析.结果表明,从构建的菠菜消减杂交文库中共得到39条长度为75~308 bp的雌雄差异序列,其平均长度约为154 bp.对获得的序列进行Blastn同源比对发现了12条序列为叶绿体基因组来源序列,这些序列与菠菜叶绿体基因组相似度在98%以上,说明所获得的差异片段为核质体DNA序列.将筛选出的核质体DNA序列进行进一步验证后获得了两个稳定的长度分别为146 bp和199 bp的雄性偏好核质体DNA序列,说明所获得的两个NUPTs序列在菠菜雄性基因组中有更多的累积.     

影响译者翻译的三个因素

由于不同语言之间在语言结构、语言背景、思维方式和表达方式等方面有很大的差异,导致翻译的过程不仅是语言的转换,更是一种跨文化的交际行为.作为译者,应注意很多方面的问题,本文就这个问题从翻译理论的角度进行分析总结,并给出了一些指导性的建议,对于旨在翻译领域发展的人有一定的指导意义.     

谈约束理论A原则对汉语“自己”的解释

作为乔姆斯基的原则与参数理论的主要成果之一,约束理论及其三原则是对同一语句中名词词组之间的所指异同关系及相关条件限制的理论概括。这一理论常被语言学家们用来解释英语及其它语言的句法现象,因而有着十分重要的意义。但是该理论,尤其是其中的A原则在解释汉语中的反身代词＂自己＂的时候却显示出了一定的局限性。本文从前人的相关研究出发,提出了应该从句法、语义、语用等方面来解释汉语中的反身代词＂自己＂。     

大黄鱼Rab11基因的克隆与表达分析

克隆了大黄鱼小G蛋白家族中的Rab11基因,测序查明其cDNA序列全长1373 bp,其中5’非编码区为129 bp,3’非编码区为587 bp,开放阅读框为657 bp,编码218个氨基酸;其氨基酸序列与罗非鱼、斑马鱼等鱼类Rab11蛋白序列同源性在95％左右,与人类、大熊猫等物种的同源性也达到90%以上。Rab11基因在大黄鱼脾脏、鳃、肾脏、皮肤、肝脏、血液、肠、心脏和胃9个组织中均有表达,在血液、肝脏中表达量最高,在胃中表达量最低;溶藻弧菌刺激后大黄鱼肝脏、肾脏和脾脏组织中Rab11基因的表达量均明显上调,提示Rab11在大黄鱼的抗病免疫反应中有着重要的作用。     

马克思人学理论的思想进程和基点

历史上任何一种哲学学说都有它的理论来源,人学也是这样。马克思批判地吸取了两千多年来人类思想和文化发展中的关于人的论述中一切有价值的东西,尤其吸收了资产阶级思想家关于人的学说的精华,由此形成和确立自己的人的学说。通过对马克思人学思想的理论渊源的阐述,说明了马克思人学思想的形成和立论之基。     

Fuzzy正则语言注记

在形式语言和自动机理论研究中，Fuzzy语言显得特别重要，而Fuzzy正则语言是Fuzzy形式语言的核心部分，是自动机理论与实际相结合的一个桥梁。对Fuzzy正则语言的一些性质、Fuzzy有限状态自动机与Fuzzy正则语言间的关系进行了探讨。     

ATP-dependent assembly of double hexamers of SV40 T antigen at the viral origin of DNA replication

Simian virus 40 (SV40) replicates in nuclei of human and monkey cells. One viral protein, large tumour (T) antigen, is required for the initiation of DNA replication. The development of in vitro replication systems which retain this property has facilitated the identification of the cellular components required for replication. T antigen recognizes the pentanucleotide 5'-GAGGC-3' which is present in four copies within the 64 base-pairs (bp) of the core origin. In the presence of ATP it binds with increased affinity forming a distinctive, bilobed structure visible in electron micrographs. As a helicase, it unwinds SV40 DNA bidirectionally from the origin. We report here that in vitro and in the presence of ATP, T antigen assembles a double hexamer, centred on the core origin and extending beyond it by 12 bp in each direction. The assembly of this dodecamer initiates an untwisting of the duplex by 2-3 turns. In the absence of ATP, a tetrameric structure is the largest found at the core origin. In the absence of DNA, but in the presence of ATP or its non-hydrolysable analogues, T antigen assembles into hexamers. This suggests that ATP effects an allosteric change in the monomer. The change alters protein-protein interactions and allows the assembly of a double hexamer, which initiates replication at the core origin.     

油菜花序轴薄层培养形态发生研究

油菜花序轴薄层切段在MS培养基上经诱导能产生愈伤组织,再经分化长出不定根与不定芽.本文研究了外植体愈伤组织形成,细胞启动的形态学特征及根芽分化的特点.实验证实花序轴启动部位多在表皮下的皮层薄壁细胞.启动细胞脱分化形成分生细胞团、分生细胞层,进一步长成愈伤组织突起.大多数分生细胞团可直接分化为不定根、不定芽.一般不定根为内起源,但亦有外起源,而不定芽多为外起源.     

公示语翻译研究综述

通过系统的文献调研,对2004—2010年间期刊(主要以外语类为主)发表的公示语翻译研究方面的文章进行了综述,从翻译理论研究、文本类型研究、错误分析与对策、翻译方法探索等方面,总结了中国公示语翻译研究取得的成绩及存在的问题,并对该领域的未来发展趋势及研究重点进行了探讨,以期为今后的公示语翻译研究提供一些思路。     

无标度网络拓扑的统计研究

近年来,无标度网络已成为系统科学研究的热点,出现了一些通用的形式化分析方法。从概率论的角度,分析了无标度的形成机制及其对复杂系统宏观结构的影响,介绍了国际上最有影响的一些成果和研究,并简述了无标度网络的应用前景。     

清江隔河岩大坝渗流分析中的遗传算法应用

介绍了遗传算法的基本原理和算法实现，用Matlab语言进行编写，并将其用于隔河岩大坝的渗流分析，计算结果与实际观测符合得很好．