Evolutionary biology: adaptive developmental plasticity in snakes

The morphology of organisms is generally well matched to their environment, presumably because expression of their genes is tailored either at the population or the individual level to suit local conditions: for example, snake populations that persistently encounter large prey may accumulate gene mutations that specify a large head size, or head growth may be increased in individual snakes to meet local demands (adaptive developmental plasticity). Here we test the relative contributions of genetics and environment to the jaw sizes of two tiger snake populations: one that consumes small prey on the mainland, and an island population that relies on larger prey and has a larger jaw size. Although the idea of adaptive plasticity in response to environmental pressures is controversial, we find that both factors influence the difference in jaw size between the two populations, and the influence of developmental plasticity is greater in the island population.     

A Cretaceous terrestrial snake with robust hindlimbs and a sacrum

It has commonly been thought that snakes underwent progressive loss of their limbs by gradual diminution of their use. However, recent developmental and palaeontological discoveries suggest a more complex scenario of limb reduction, still poorly documented in the fossil record. Here we report a fossil snake with a sacrum supporting a pelvic girdle and robust, functional legs outside the ribcage. The new fossil, from the Upper Cretaceous period of Patagonia, fills an important gap in the evolutionary progression towards limblessness because other known fossil snakes with developed hindlimbs, the marine Haasiophis, Pachyrhachis and Eupodophis, lack a sacral region. Phylogenetic analysis shows that the new fossil is the most primitive (basal) snake known and that all other limbed fossil snakes are closer to the more advanced macrostomatan snakes, a group including boas, pythons and colubroids. The new fossil retains several features associated with a subterranean or surface dwelling life that are also present in primitive extant snake lineages, supporting the hypothesis of a terrestrial rather than marine origin of snakes.     

浅谈武夷山蛇类的开发与利用

蛇的全身都是宝,利用价值极高,武夷山是蛇的王国,蛇类产品的开发利用走在全国的前列。要保护好蛇类,才能可持续利用。     

The Pleistocene serpent Wonambi and the early evolution of snakes

The Madtsoiidae were medium sized to gigantic snakes with a fossil record extending from the mid-Cretaceous to the Pleistocene, and spanning Europe, Africa, Madagascar, South America and Australia. This widely distributed group survived for about 90 million years (70% of known ophidian history), and potentially provides important insights into the origin and early evolution of snakes. However, madtsoiids are known mostly from their vertebrae, and their skull morphology and phylogenetic affinities have been enigmatic. Here we report new Australian material of Wonambi, one of the last-surviving madtsoiids, that allows the first detailed assessment of madtsoiid cranial anatomy and relationships. Despite its recent age, which could have overlapped with human history in Australia, Wonambi is one of the most primitive snakes known--as basal as the Cretaceous forms Pachyrhachis and Dinilysia. None of these three primitive snake lineages shows features associated with burrowing, nor do any of the nearest lizard relatives of snakes (varanoids). These phylogenetic conclusions contradict the widely held 'subterranean' theory of snake origins, and instead imply that burrowing snakes (scolecophidians and anilioids) acquired their fossorial adaptations after the evolution of the snake body form and jaw apparatus in a large aquatic or (surface-active) terrestrial ancestor.     

A transitional snake from the Late Cretaceous period of North America

Snakes are the most diverse group of lizards, but their origins and early evolution remain poorly understood owing to a lack of transitional forms. Several major issues remain outstanding, such as whether snakes originated in a marine or terrestrial environment and how their unique feeding mechanism evolved. The Cretaceous Coniophis precedens was among the first Mesozoic snakes discovered, but until now only an isolated vertebra has been described and it has therefore been overlooked in discussions of snake evolution. Here we report on previously undescribed material from this ancient snake, including the maxilla, dentary and additional vertebrae. Coniophis is not an anilioid as previously thought a revised phylogenetic analysis of Ophidia shows that it instead represents the most primitive known snake. Accordingly, its morphology and ecology are critical to understanding snake evolution. Coniophis occurs in a continental floodplain environment, consistent with a terrestrial rather than a marine origin; furthermore, its small size and reduced neural spines indicate fossorial habits, suggesting that snakes evolved from burrowing lizards. The skull is intermediate between that of lizards and snakes. Hooked teeth and an intramandibular joint indicate that Coniophis fed on relatively large, soft-bodied prey. However, the maxilla is firmly united with the skull, indicating an akinetic rostrum. Coniophis therefore represents a transitional snake, combining a snake-like body and a lizard-like head. Subsequent to the evolution of a serpentine body and carnivory, snakes evolved a highly specialized, kinetic skull, which was followed by a major adaptive radiation in the Early Cretaceous period. This pattern suggests that the kinetic skull was a key innovation that permitted the diversification of snakes.     

Developmental basis of limblessness and axial patterning in snakes.

The evolution of snakes involved major changes in vertebrate body plan organization, but the developmental basis of those changes is unknown. The python axial skeleton consists of hundreds of similar vertebrae, forelimbs are absent and hindlimbs are severely reduced. Combined limb loss and trunk elongation is found in many vertebrate taxa, suggesting that these changes may be linked by a common developmental mechanism. Here we show that Hox gene expression domains are expanded along the body axis in python embryos, and that this can account for both the absence of forelimbs and the expansion of thoracic identity in the axial skeleton. Hindlimb buds are initiated, but apical-ridge and polarizing-region signalling pathways that are normally required for limb development are not activated. Leg bud outgrowth and signalling by Sonic hedgehog in pythons can be rescued by application of fibroblast growth factor or by recombination with chick apical ridge. The failure to activate these signalling pathways during normal python development may also stem from changes in Hox gene expression that occurred early in snake evolution.     

从石蜡包埋组织高效提取RNA的优化及Shh的RT-PCR检测

从石蜡包埋组织中提取高质量的RNA是对肿瘤实体组织进行分子生物学研究的重要方法之一．利用人的胃肠道肿瘤材料，通过蛋白酶K消化，经酚-氯仿、异戊醇抽提去蛋白及异丙醇沉淀，优化了1套从石蜡包埋组织中提取RNA的方法，提高了所提取RNA的质量和产量．所得RNA经电泳检测，并进行RT-PCR扩增Shh(sonic hedgehog)信号分子，结果良好．故认为此提取RNA的方法值得推广．     

贵州省盘县中三叠世羊圈幻龙新材料的研究

详细描述产自贵州省盘县新民乡羊圈村中三叠统关岭组上段的一件近于完整的羊圈幻龙新标本,并补充完善该种头后骨骼学信息。厘定后的羊圈幻龙的鉴定特征为:4个前颌骨獠齿后面跟着一个小的前颌骨齿;5~6个小的上颌骨齿后面跟着一对上颌骨獠齿;腕骨4块;间锁骨没有后突;荐椎4块;存在多指(趾)式。新标本的头后骨骼首次呈现一些原认为仅出现在幻龙属姊妹群——鸥龙属的一些特征,如间锁骨没有后突,腕骨4块,荐椎4块及存在多指(趾)式。这些特征的发现为深入认识和区分幻龙属和鸥龙属之间性状的异同提供了重要的信息。另外,新标本与羊圈幻龙模式标本,以及相同地点、相同地层层位产出的小吻幻龙模式标本IVPP V 14294在体型、齿式和头骨骨骼模式等高度一致,且与幻龙属其他种明显不同,因此认为它们系同物异名。鉴于N.rostellatus后出,应予弃用。     

蛇毒的研究进展及其在医药领域的应用

就国内外主要毒蛇的蛇毒组分、对凝血系统的影响及蛇毒在医药领域的应用进行了综述．蛇毒的化学成分十分复杂,主要包括酶、神经毒性多肽、神经生长因子、膜活性多肽及其他生物活性肽,其中酶类包含多种与凝血系统、纤溶系统相关的成分．蛇毒在医药领域具有非常重要的作用,主要有促凝作用、溶栓作用、镇痛作用、降压作用和抗肿瘤作用．     

贵州省部分地区蛙、蛇体内曼氏裂头蚴感染情况的调查

了解贵州省野生青蛙和蛇类自然感染曼氏裂头蚴的情况。方法:从我省贵阳、安顺、惠水、织金及水城5个地区捕捉野生青蛙和蛇,进行解剖检查和镜下鉴定曼氏裂头蚴,并对数据进行分析。结果:贵州省野生青蛙裂头蚴的自然感染率为18.04%(882/4 888),感染强度为1~41条;野生蛇类的自然感染率为24.04%(25/104),感染强度为1~212条,其中,以乌梢蛇和王锦蛇的感染率较高。结论:蛙、蛇体内裂头蚴感染率高,与我省裂头蚴病不断发生密切相关。因此,加强健康教育,改变不良的生活方式和饮食习俗,保护野生蛙和蛇对预防裂头蚴病是十分重要的。     

乳香鱼LACTARIUS LACTARIUS(BLOCH et SCHNEIDERP)骨骼的研究

乳香鱼鼻骨为一小薄片.犁骨有钩状小齿.额骨背外侧有较高的弧形薄骨嵴,形成椭圆形的盘状凸起.缺眶上骨,眶下骨6块.上枕嵴特别发达.上、下颌前端各具2枚较大的犬齿.有辅上颌骨.角舌骨上有裂孔.具上后颞骨.     

安徽淮南的剑齿象化石 安徽淮南一新种剑齿象属化石及其接引——分支系统之(-)

本文论述了剑齿象的一新种并描述了它的特征(diagnosis),这一新种代表了由乳齿象演化为剑齿象的关键,具有重要意义,从而进一步修订了国内已发现19种剑齿象的材料,肯定了其中的9个种,进行了分类方面的工作。     

河南鸡公山自然保护区蛇类资源调查

从2000年至2003年对鸡公山自然保护区的蛇类资源进行了调查，共发现蛇类25种．其中有毒蛇5种．无毒蛇20种．调查结果表明．鸡公山境内的蛇类种类和种群数量有增加的趋势。     

Snake circumvents constraints on prey size

For animals who are unable to take bites out of their food, the size of the food item that can be consumed is constrained by the maximal size of the mouth opening (gape)--snakes are an example of gape-limited predators and they usually swallow their prey whole. Here we describe unique feeding behaviours in two closely related species of snake, which circumvent their gape limitation by removing and consuming pieces from newly moulted crabs that are too large to be swallowed intact. This evolutionary innovation is surprising, as the needle-like teeth and highly mobile bones that facilitate the capture and engulfment of large, whole prey by snakes are ill-suited both to cutting and to generating large bite forces.     

蛇岛蝮蛇与蝮蛇乌苏里亚种蛇蜕的微量元素分析与比较

本文作者经ICP-AES对蛇岛蝮蛇和蝮蛇乌苏里亚种蛇蜕作了定性定量分析,发现两种蝮蛇蛇蜕中均含有Zn,Cu,Fe,Mn,Mo,Se,Sr,Rb和Ge等21种微量元素以及Ca,P,Mg,K等4种宏量元素。但其含量因生态环境和生活习性的不同而有差异。似乎说明利用ICP对蛇蜕等的定性定量分析,可以做为蛇类鉴定的一种新的鉴别方法。     

峨嵋双蝴蝶植物提取物的抗五步蛇毒作用

研究峨嵋双蝴蝶植物水提物的抗五步蛇毒作用.建立小鼠五步蛇毒中毒模型,观察小鼠的中毒表现,并统计小鼠的死亡率,比较小鼠组织出血、组织坏死及组织溃疡状况.结果发现,峨嵋双蝴蝶植物水提物给药组动物的死亡率较模型组的明显下降,局部和全身症状较轻,而且随着剂量的增加症状显著减轻,尤其是对于组织的保护作用比较明显.峨嵋双蝴蝶植物水提物具有抗五步蛇毒作用,能降低蛇毒毒性.     

Skull of the large non-macrostomatan snake Yurlunggur from the Australian Oligo-Miocene

Understanding the origin and early evolution of snakes from lizards depends on accurate morphological knowledge of the skull in basal lineages, but fossil specimens of archaic snakes have been rare, and either fragmentary or difficult to study as a result of compression by enclosing sediments. A number of Cenozoic fossil snakes from Australia have vertebral morphology diagnostic of an extinct group, Madtsoiidae, that was widespread in Gondwana from mid-Cretaceous (Cenomanian) to Eocene times, and also reached Europe in the late Cretaceous period. Despite this long history, only about half the skull is known from the best-known species Wonambi naracoortensis, and the few known cranial elements of other species have added little further evidence for phylogenetic relationships. Conflicting hypotheses have been proposed for their relationships and evolutionary significance, either as basal ophidians with many ancestral (varanoid- or mosasaur-like) features, or advanced (macrostomatan) alethinophidians of little relevance to snake origins. Here I report two partial skeletons referred to Yurlunggur, from the late Oligocene and early Miocene of northern Australia, which together represent almost the complete skull and mandible. The exceptionally preserved skulls provide new evidence linking Yurlunggur with Wonambi and other madtsoiids, falsifying predictions of the macrostomatan hypothesis, and supporting the exclusion of Madtsoiidae from the clade including all extant snakes.     

First evidence of a venom delivery apparatus in extinct mammals

Numerous non-mammalian vertebrates have evolved lethal venoms to aid either in securing prey or as protection from predators, but modern mammals that use venoms in these ways are rare, including only the duck-billed platypus (Ornithorhynchus), the Caribbean Solenodon, and a few shrews (Soricidae) (Order Insectivora). Here we report evidence of a venom delivery apparatus in extinct mammals, documented by well-preserved specimens recovered from late Palaeocene rocks in Alberta, Canada. Although classified within Eutheria, these mammals are phylogenetically remote from modern Insectivora and have evolved specialized teeth as salivary venom delivery systems (VDSs) that differ markedly from one another and from those of Solenodon and shrews. Our discoveries therefore show that mammals have been much more flexible in the evolution of VDSs than previously believed, contradicting currently held notions that modern insectivorans are representative of the supposedly limited role of salivary venoms in mammalian history. Evidently, small predatory eutherians have paralleled colubroid snakes in evolving salivary venoms and their delivery systems several times independently.     

枕纹锦蛇繁殖习性

本文阐明枕纹锦蛇孵化所需的条件，仔蛇出壳后进食及进食量，可为蛇类饲养及综合利用提供依据。