The energy efficiency of formation of photons, radicals and ions during single-bubble cavitation

It is extremely difficult to perform a quantitative analysis of the chemistry associated with multibubble cavitation: unknown parameters include the number of active bubbles, the acoustic pressure acting on each bubble and the bubble size distribution. Single-bubble sonoluminescence (characterized by the emission of picosecond flashes of light) results from nonlinear pulsations of an isolated vapour-gas bubble in an acoustic field. Although the latter offers a much simpler environment in which to study the chemical activity of cavitation, quantitative measurements have been hindered by the tiny amount of reacting gas within a single bubble (typically <10(-13) mol). Here we demonstrate the existence of chemical reactions within a single cavitating bubble, and quantify the sources of energy dissipation during bubble collapse. We measure the yields of nitrite ions, hydroxyl radicals and photons. The energy efficiency of hydroxyl radical formation is comparable to that in multibubble cavitation, but the energy efficiency of light emission is much higher. The observed rate of nitrite formation is in good agreement with the calculated diffusion rate of nitrogen into the bubble. We note that the temperatures attained in single-bubble cavitation in liquids with significant vapour pressures will be substantially limited by the endothermic chemical reactions of the polyatomic species inside the collapsing bubble.     

Molecular emission from single-bubble sonoluminescence

Ultrasound can drive a single gas bubble in water into violent oscillation; as the bubble is compressed periodically, extremely short flashes of light (about 100 ps) are generated with clock-like regularity. This process, known as single-bubble sonoluminescence, gives rise to featureless continuum emission in water (from 200 to 800 nm, with increasing intensity into the ultraviolet). In contrast, the emission of light from clouds of cavitating bubbles at higher acoustic pressures (multi-bubble sonoluminescence) is dominated by atomic and molecular excited-state emission at much lower temperatures. These observations have spurred intense effort to uncover the origin of sonoluminescence and to generalize the conditions necessary for its creation. Here we report a series of polar aprotic liquids that generate very strong single-bubble sonoluminescence, during which emission from molecular excited states is observed. Previously, single-bubble sonoluminescence from liquids other than water has proved extremely elusive. Our results give direct proof of the existence of chemical reactions and the formation of molecular excited states during single-bubble cavitation, and provide a spectroscopic link between single- and multi-bubble sonoluminescence.     

Plasma formation and temperature measurement during single-bubble cavitation

Single-bubble sonoluminescence (SBSL) results from the extreme temperatures and pressures achieved during bubble compression; calculations have predicted the existence of a hot, optically opaque plasma core with consequent bremsstrahlung radiation. Recent controversial reports claim the observation of neutrons from deuterium-deuterium fusion during acoustic cavitation. However, there has been previously no strong experimental evidence for the existence of a plasma during single- or multi-bubble sonoluminescence. SBSL typically produces featureless emission spectra that reveal little about the intra-cavity physical conditions or chemical processes. Here we report observations of atomic (Ar) emission and extensive molecular (SO) and ionic (O2+) progressions in SBSL spectra from concentrated aqueous H2SO4 solutions. Both the Ar and SO emission permit spectroscopic temperature determinations, as accomplished for multi-bubble sonoluminescence with other emitters. The emissive excited states observed from both Ar and O2+ are inconsistent with any thermal process. The Ar excited states involved are extremely high in energy (>13 eV) and cannot be thermally populated at the measured Ar emission temperatures (4,000-15,000 K); the ionization energy of O2 is more than twice its bond dissociation energy, so O2+ likewise cannot be thermally produced. We therefore conclude that these emitting species must originate from collisions with high-energy electrons, ions or particles from a hot plasma core.     

Parametric dependence of the line emissions in sonoluminescence

Based on a series of spectral measurements of sonoluminescence, this paper investigates parametric dependence of the line emissions in single bubble sonoluminescence (SBSL) and multi-bubble sonoluminescence (MBSL). The experiments show that the intensities of the OH* radical line, the sodium line and the noble gas lines in SBSL are relevant to the driving pressure of the acoustic field and the concentration of the noble gases dissolved in host liquids. The intensity of line emissions in total spectrum increases with the decreasing driving pressure and the increasing concentration of noble gases. Parametric dependence of line emissions in MBSL consists with that in SBSL. Line emissions in sonoluminescence should correspond to lower temperature inside the bubbles. SBSL and MBSL share the same spectral structure, and the difference between them found by previous experiments should result from the different temperatures inside bubbles.     

若丹明6G圆锥泡光致发光的实验研究

利用一种改进后的U型管圆锥泡声致发光装置,研究了若丹明6G在1,2-丙二醇溶液中的光致发光现象.测量得到了若丹明6G在不同浓度时的圆锥泡声致发光光谱,结果表明利用圆锥泡声致发光可以激发若丹明6G使其发出荧光,从而证明了在溶液中加入荧光物质的声致发光实验中存在光致发光现象.在较高浓度时,由于若丹明6G存在强烈的自吸收,圆锥泡光致发光的荧光峰值与利用普通激光激发得到的荧光峰值相比向长波方向发生了红移.圆锥泡光致发光能否在光谱测量中被探测到在一定程度上取决于荧光与圆锥泡声致发光的光发射强度的比值.     

复频超声的声化学作用

研究了复频超声产生声化学过程的机理和声化学产率 ,给出了复频超声在介质中相互作用引起空化波动方程的解析解 ,将复频超声在液体中相互作用产生的散射谱与单频进行比较 ,证明了复频超声声化学作用优于单频超声 .     

静态声空化泡内外的质量交换

研究表明声空化泡内外存在着不可忽略的质量交换,但目前的研究主要针对激烈脉动型的声空化泡.本文利用驻波声场的Bjerkes力稳定悬浮非激烈脉动型声空化泡（静态声空化泡）来研究泡壁处气液间的质量交换特性.结合实验结果,我们分析了驱动声压、气体种类、液体的黏度、表面张力,饱和蒸汽压等因素对静态声空化泡内外质量交换特性的影响.同时,我们设计的实验系统也为气液传质特性测量提供了一种方法.     

液体空化对沸腾传热影响的实验及机理研究

从液体空化和沸腾机理的角度出发，阐述了两者的关系，揭示了液体空化强化沸腾传热的机理，并成功地解释了声空化对水平圆管沸腾传热的影响，结果表明，空化和沸腾是从两个不同的角度对液体强度施加破坏的，标准状态下的空泡半径维持在微米量级以下，沸腾传热是否受到声空化的强化，取决于声空化是否给传热表面提供了核化汽泡胚胎。     

乙二醇溶液中圆锥泡声致发光的发光光谱

利用一种改进后的U型管圆锥泡声致发光装置,研究了乙二醇溶液中圆锥泡声致发光的发光光谱.实验结果表明,光谱为从紫外到可见光波长范围的连续谱,在589 nm附近叠加有钠的3p-3s原子发射谱线.在钠的原子发射谱线左侧测量得到了Na-Ar分子激发态跃迁形成的蓝卫星带,并首次在声致发光实验中测得了Na-Ar的红卫星带以及钠的3d-3p原子发射谱线.最后,讨论了钠的原子发射谱线以及卫星带的形成机理.     

流体动力空化的噪声特性及空化强度的测量

本文对Contraction-Divergence(收缩-扩张)流道产生的空化泡进行高速摄影观测和空化噪声测量.观测结果中发现随流速增加,气泡状态从离散的空化云变为连续的空化云;噪声谱逐渐从带有宽峰的谱变为连续谱.噪声谱中宽峰的中心频率和峰值都随流速变化而变化.在频率范围[0-50kHz]内对功率谱进行积分,积分值随流速增加迅速增加,可以表示空化的强度变化.实验证明,与声空化存在瞬态和稳态两种空化类似,也存在两种流体动力式空化.     

对声致发光单气泡半径计算

从Keller-Miksis方程出发,推导出声致发光气泡半径微分方程,通过数值计算,计算出不同驱动声压,不同驱动声压频率下的气泡半径,讨论了驱动声压,驱动声压频率与声致发光气泡半径的关系,得到理论计算结果与实验数据很好的吻合.     

单螺杆泵输送不同粘度液体时的外特性及汽蚀特征

本文用不同粘度的液体对单螺杆泵的外特性和汽蚀特性进行了实验研究,分析了外特性曲线的变化特点,讨论了粘度变化对特性和能量分配的影响,并对单螺杆泵的汽蚀特性曲线和汽蚀条件下的能量平衡关系进行了初步的分析和探讨。     

变幅杆式超声波声场分布测量

以某钢厂180 t钢包为原型,在钢包水模内进行超声场空化强度及声场分布分析;采用金属薄膜腐蚀法,测量研究超声空化强度及其分布,从空化角度对形成的声场分布进行探讨。实验结果表明:超声波空化场在工具杆周围以径向辐射为主,在工具杆底端的空化场呈圆锥状分布;在超声搅拌的过程中,空化泡群产生在超声波的波腹位置,产生后沿任意方向作直线运动,在运动的过程中伴随着空化泡的聚集、长大、崩溃等过程,正是因为这些剧烈的变化以及崩溃过程产生的微射流改善搅拌效果。     

喷水推进泵空化特征联合分类识别

在无空化区、空化Ⅰ区和空化Ⅱ区3种工况条件下，利用安装在实船喷水推进泵检查孔内的水听器和布置在泵壳上的加速度传感器获取喷水推进泵的声压和振动信号.通过二阶导数分析发现，空化前后声压和振动信号的二阶导数均具有显著的差别，空化后声压信号在8~25 kHz、振动信号在3~12 kHz频段上出现了明显的峰值.以该特征频段上二阶导数的峰值序列为基础，构造特征集并进行特征联合分类识别.结果表明：利用特征联合分类识别可以区分无空化区、空化Ⅰ区和空化Ⅱ区的信号，多传感器特征联合分类识别的效果优于单传感器特征联合分类，尤其是基于二阶导数的多传感器特征联合分类识别的效果较为理想.     

Snapping shrimp make flashing bubbles

Snapping shrimp produce a loud crackling noise that is intense enough to disturb underwater communication. This sound originates from the violent collapse of a large cavitation bubble generated under the tensile forces of a high-velocity water jet formed when the shrimp's snapper-claw snaps shut (Fig. 1). Here we show that a short, intense flash of light is emitted as the bubble collapses, indicating that extreme pressures and temperatures of at least 5,000 K (ref. 4) must exist inside the bubble at the point of collapse. We have dubbed this phenomenon 'shrimpoluminescence' - the first observation, to our knowledge, of this mode of light production in any animal - because of its apparent similarity to sonoluminescence, the light emission from a bubble periodically driven by ultrasound.     

空化气泡发光机理

介绍了单气泡声致发光现象的主要研究进展,总结了理论计算研究结果.通过求解流体力学方程组等比较完全的数值计算,发现空化气泡发光机理就是高温、高压和高密度的气体发光,因气泡达到的温度不同,有时原子或分子线谱贡献占优势,有时连续谱占主导.通过研究单气泡形状不稳定性,发现声压的非球对称微小偏离导致驱动声压上限.     

Violation of the incompressibility of liquid by simple shear flow

In standard fluid dynamics, the density change associated with flow is often assumed to be negligible, implying that the fluid is incompressible. For example, this has been established for simple shear flows, where no pressure change is associated with flow: there is no volume deformation due to viscous stress and inertial effects can be neglected. Accordingly, any flow-induced instabilities (such as cavitation) are unexpected for simple shear flows. Here we demonstrate that the incompressibility condition can be violated even for simple shear flows, by taking into account the coupling between the flow and density fluctuations, which arises owing to the density dependence of the viscosity. We show that a liquid can become mechanically unstable above a critical shear rate that is given by the inverse of the derivative of viscosity with respect to pressure. Our model predicts that, for very viscous liquids, this shear-induced instability should occur at moderate shear rates that are experimentally accessible. Our results explain the unusual shear-induced instability observed in viscous lubricants, and may illuminate other poorly understood phenomena associated with mechanical instability of liquids at low Reynolds number; for example, shear-induced cavitation and bubble growth, and shear-banding of very viscous liquids such as metallic glasses and the Earth's mantle.     

Controlled vesicle deformation and lysis by single oscillating bubbles

The ability of collapsing (cavitating) bubbles to focus and concentrate energy, forces and stresses is at the root of phenomena such as cavitation damage, sonochemistry or sonoluminescence. In a biomedical context, ultrasound-driven microbubbles have been used to enhance contrast in ultrasonic images. The observation of bubble-enhanced sonoporation--acoustically induced rupture of membranes--has also opened up intriguing possibilities for the therapeutic application of sonoporation as an alternative to cell-wall permeation techniques such as electroporation and particle guns. However, these pioneering experiments have not been able to pinpoint the mechanism by which the violently collapsing bubble opens pores or larger holes in membranes. Here we present an experiment in which gentle (linear) bubble oscillations are sufficient to achieve rupture of lipid membranes. In this regime, the bubble dynamics and the ensuing sonoporation can be accurately controlled. The use of microbubbles as focusing agents makes acoustics on the micrometre scale (microacoustics) a viable tool, with possible applications in cell manipulation and cell-wall permeation as well as in microfluidic devices.     

镁合金熔体中超声空化泡行为的数值模拟

以超声空化理论为基础,应用Matlab软件对Rayleigh-Plesset方程进行了数值模拟计算,主要研究了不同超声条件(超声频率、声压幅值和空化泡初始平衡半径)对镁合金熔体中空化泡行为的影响,并且探讨了声压幅值和熔体主体温度对空化泡崩溃时的泡内温度和压力的影响.结果表明,较低的超声频率和熔体主体温度、较高的声压幅值以及小于或等于共振尺寸的空化泡初始平衡半径有利于超声空化效应.     

染色法测量超声空化场研究

简易、形象地评定声空化强度与分布是功率超声技术应用中的重要技术.本文利用染色法测量侧置换能器清洗水槽中声空化场,通过改变功率,对多种染色载板的染色效果加以比较,给出3种适合不同功率情形使用的染色载板,并提出染色法最佳观测时间和最佳观测方法.同时,研究了变频条件下清洗水槽中的空化分布.结果表明,连续变频下获得均匀的空化场.染色法能形象描述超声清洗设备和声化学反应器中的声空化分布,并且具有简单、直观、经济、可信度高的优点,是一种实际可行的声空化定性评价方法.