Deregulated cyclin E induces chromosome instability.

Cyclin E, a regulatory subunit of cyclin-dependent kinase 2 (Cdk2), is an important regulator of entry into S phase in the mammalian cell cycle. In normal dividing cells, cyclin E accumulates at the G1/S-phase boundary and is degraded as cells progress through S phase. However, in many human tumours cyclin E is overexpressed and the levels of protein and kinase activity are often deregulated relative to the cell cycle. It is not understood how alterations in expression of cyclin E contribute to tumorigenesis. Here we show that constitutive cyclin-E overexpression in both immortalized rat embryo fibroblasts and human breast epithelial cells results in chromosome instability (CIN). In contrast, analogous expression of cyclin D1 or A does not increase the frequency of CIN. Cyclin-E-expressing cells that exhibit CIN have normal centrosome numbers. However, constitutive overexpression of cyclin E impairs S-phase progression, indicating that aberrant regulation of this process may be responsible for the CIN observed. These results indicate that downregulation of cyclin-E/Cdk2 kinase activity following the G1/S-phase transition may be necessary for the maintenance of karyotypic stability.     

APC-dependent proteolysis of the mitotic cyclin Clb2 is essential for mitotic exit

Cyclin degradation is central to regulation of the cell cycle. Mitotic exit was proposed to require degradation of the S phase cyclin Clb5 by the anaphase-promoting complex activated by Cdc20 (APC(Cdc20)). Furthermore, Clb5 degradation was thought to be necessary for effective dephosphorylation and activation of the APC regulatory subunit Cdh1 (also known as Hct1) and the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor Sic1 by the phosphatase Cdc14, allowing mitotic kinase inactivation and mitotic exit. Here we show, however, that spindle disassembly and cell division occur without significant APC(Cdc20)-mediated Clb5 degradation, as well as in the absence of both Cdh1 and Sic1. We find instead that destruction-box-dependent degradation of the mitotic cyclin Clb2 is essential for mitotic exit. APC(Cdc20) may be required for an essential early phase of Clb2 degradation, and this phase may be sufficient for most aspects of mitotic exit. Cdh1 and Sic1 may be required for further inactivation of Clb2-Cdk1, regulating cell size and the length of G1.     

Partial inhibition of CDK4 gene expression leads to the extension of G1 phase of V79-8 cells

V79-8 is an abnormal cell line which does not have detectable G1 and G2 phases in its cell cycle. This cell line is derived from V79 cell line which has Gl phase but lacks G2 phase. By using an anti-sense approach, CDK4 gene expression was partially inhibited to find whether CDK4 might contribute to the lack of Gl phase in V79-8 cells. Anti-CDK4 anti-sense plasmid was constructed and used to transfect V79-8 cells. Clones of transfected cells (V79-8-asCDK4) were examined, in comparison with V79-8 cells, to determine its growth curve, cell doubling-time (GT), the level of CDK4 gene expression and the levels of expression of some other growth related genes. V79-8-asCDK4 cells showed a slower growth rate with a doubling time 2.5-h longer than that of V79-8 cells. A flow cytometry (FCM) analysis demonstrated that the 2.5 h increase of the doubling time of V79-8-asCDK4 cells was mainly due to the appearance of Gl phase because its G2 + M phase was not significantly different from that of V79-8 cells. The decrease of CDK4 gene expression in V79-8-asCDK4 cells was shown by Northern-blot. Changes in the expression levels of the growth-related genes TGF-β, cyclin D1 and Rb were also detected in V79-8-asCDK4 cells. CDK4 functions mainly in G1 and at the transition between G1 and S phases. Expression of an anti-sense CDK4 gene fragment reduces the levels of endogenous CDK4, CDK4/cyclinD kinase activity and the phosphorylation of Rb. These events may postpone the inactivation of the check-point leading to the delay of entry into S phase and the reappearance of G1 phase in V79-8-asCDK4 cells.     

Phosphorylation-dependent binding of mitotic cyclins to Cdc6 contributes to DNA replication control

Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) limit the activation of DNA replication origins to once per cell cycle by preventing the assembly of pre-replicative complexes (pre-RCs) during S, G2 and M phases of the cell cycle in the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. CDKs inhibit each pre-RC component (ORC, Cdc6, Cdt1/Mcm2-7) by different mechanisms. We show here that the mitotic CDK, Clb2/Cdc28, binds tightly to an amino-terminal domain (NTD) of Cdc6, and that Cdc6 in this complex is unable to assemble pre-RCs. We present evidence indicating that this Clb2-dependent mechanism contributes to preventing re-replication in vivo. CDK interaction with the NTD of Cdc6 is mediated by the cyclin subunit Clb2, and could be reconstituted with recombinant Clb2 protein and synthetic NTD peptides. Tight Clb2 binding occurred only when the NTD was phosphorylated on CDK consensus sites. Human CDKs containing cyclins A, B and E also bound specifically to phospho-NTD peptides. We propose that direct binding of cyclins to phosphopeptide motifs may be a widespread phenomenon contributing to the targeting of CDKs to substrates.     

Role for cyclin A in the dependence of mitosis on completion of DNA replication.

THE cyclins were first identified by their cell-cycle-dependent synthesis and destruction and have a key role in the control of mitosis in Xenopus embryonic cell cycles. All higher eukaryotes have at least two types of cyclins, the A- and B-type, which can be distinguished by sequence motifs and the timing of their destruction in the cell cycle. The degradation of both cyclins is required for exit from mitosis, but the activation and destruction of cyclin A occur earlier in the cell cycle than with the B-type cyclins. This suggests that cyclin A has a distinct role in cell-cycle progression. We have used an antisense oligodeoxy-nucleotide directed against cyclin A to investigate this role. Ablation of cyclin A messenger RNA in cytostatic factor/metaphase-arrested extracts of Xenopus eggs, followed by in vitro progression into interphase, resulted in the premature appearance of cyclin B-cdc2-associated H1 kinase activity and premature entry into mitosis. Although cyclin A-ablated extracts could initiate DNA synthesis during interphase, S phase was not completed before entry into mitosis. The effects of cyclin A ablation were reversed by the addition of cyclin A mRNA or cyclin A protein to the extracts.     

Degradation of the SCF component Skp2 in cell-cycle phase G1 by the anaphase-promoting complex

Cell-cycle transitions are driven by waves of ubiquitin-dependent degradation of key cell-cycle regulators. SCF (Skp1/Cullin/F-box protein) complexes and anaphase-promoting complexes (APC) represent two major classes of ubiquitin ligases whose activities are thought to regulate primarily the G1/S and metaphase/anaphase cell-cycle transitions, respectively. The major target of the Skp1/Cul1/Skp2 (SCF(SKP2)) complex is thought to be the Cdk inhibitor p27 during S phase, whereas the principal targets for the APC are thought to be involved in chromatid separation (securin) and exit from mitosis (cyclin B). Although the role of the APC in mitosis is relatively clear, there is mounting evidence that APCs containing Cdh1 (APC(CDH1)) also have a function in the G1 phase of the cell cycle. Here, we show that the F-box protein Skp2 is polyubiquitinated, and hence earmarked for destruction, by APC(CDH1). As a result, accumulation of SCF(SKP2) requires prior inactivation of APC(CDH1). These findings provide an insight into the orchestration of SCF and APC activities during cell-cycle progression, and into the involvement of the APC in G1.     

体外APC/C活性体系的建立及其影响因素的研究

为获得具有细胞周期后期促进复合物(APC/C)活性的细胞裂解液并建立APC/C体外活性检测体系,以其底物Cyc-lin B及Securin的降解为检测指标,分别从细胞阻滞于有丝分裂期的时间,UBCH10(APC/C的E2酶)的浓度以及裂解液浓度等几个方面研究了各种处理因素对APC/C活性的影响,并且用体外翻译底物验证了其活性及相关结论。此项工作为进一步探索APC/C相关分子事件奠定了基础。     

Archipelago regulates Cyclin E levels in Drosophila and is mutated in human cancer cell lines

During Drosophila development and mammalian embryogenesis, exit from the cell cycle is contingent on tightly controlled downregulation of the activity of Cyclin E-Cdk2 complexes that normally promote the transition from G1 to S phase. Although protein degradation has a crucial role in downregulating levels of Cyclin E, many of the proteins that function in degradation of Cyclin E have not been identified. In a screen for Drosophila mutants that display increased cell proliferation, we identified archipelago, a gene encoding a protein with an F-box and seven tandem WD (tryptophan-aspartic acid) repeats. Here we show that archipelago mutant cells have persistently elevated levels of Cyclin E protein without increased levels of cyclin E RNA. They are under-represented in G1 fractions and continue to proliferate when their wild-type neighbours become quiescent. The Archipelago protein binds directly to Cyclin E and probably targets it for ubiquitin-mediated degradation. A highly conserved human homologue is present and is mutated in four cancer cell lines including three of ten derived from ovarian carcinomas. These findings implicate archipelago in developmentally regulated degradation of Cyclin E and potentially in the pathogenesis of human cancers.     

Control of the SCF(Skp2-Cks1) ubiquitin ligase by the APC/C(Cdh1) ubiquitin ligase

Skp2 and its cofactor Cks1 are the substrate-targeting subunits of the SCF(Skp2-Cks1) (Skp1/Cul1/F-box protein) ubiquitin ligase complex that regulates entry into S phase by inducing the degradation of the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors p21 and p27 (ref. 1). Skp2 is an oncoprotein that often shows increased expression in human cancers; however, the mechanism that regulates its cellular abundance is not well understood. Here we show that both Skp2 and Cks1 proteins are unstable in G1 and that their degradation is mediated by the ubiquitin ligase APC/C(Cdh1) (anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome and its activator Cdh1). Silencing of Cdh1 by RNA interference in G1 cells stabilizes Skp2 and Cks1, with a consequent increase in p21 and p27 proteolysis. Depletion of Cdh1 also increases the percentage of cells in S phase, whereas concomitant downregulation of Skp2 reverses this effect, showing that Skp2 is an essential target of APC/C(Cdh1). Expression of a stable Skp2 mutant that cannot bind APC/C(Cdh1) induces premature entry into S phase. Thus, the induction of Skp2 and Cks1 degradation in G1 represents a principal mechanism by which APC/C(Cdh1) prevents the unscheduled degradation of SCF(Skp2-Cks1) substrates and maintains the G1 state.     

The Rae1-Nup98 complex prevents aneuploidy by inhibiting securin degradation

Cdc20 and Cdh1 are the activating subunits of the anaphase-promoting complex (APC), an E3 ubiquitin ligase that drives cells into anaphase by inducing degradation of cyclin B and the anaphase inhibitor securin. To prevent chromosome missegregation, APC activity directed against these mitotic regulators must be inhibited until all chromosomes are properly attached to the mitotic spindle. Here we show that in mitosis timely destruction of securin by APC is regulated by the nucleocytoplasmic transport factors Rae1 and Nup98. We show that combined Rae1 and Nup98 haploinsufficiency in mice results in premature separation of sister chromatids, severe aneuploidy and untimely degradation of securin. We find that Rae1 and Nup98 form a complex with Cdh1-activated APC (APC(Cdh1)) in early mitosis and specifically inhibit APC(Cdh1)-mediated ubiquitination of securin. Dissociation of Rae1 and Nup98 from APC(Cdh1) coincides with the release of the mitotic checkpoint protein BubR1 from Cdc20-activated APC (APC(Cdc20)) at the metaphase to anaphase transition. Together, our results suggest that Rae1 and Nup98 are temporal regulators of APC(Cdh1) that maintain euploidy by preventing unscheduled degradation of securin.     

皮蛋模拟胃肠道消化物对HepG2细胞的影响

皮蛋是中国传统食品,其水解物具有抗氧化、抗炎和抗癌等功效,具有良好的医学前景,但目前皮蛋发挥抗癌功效的途径及作用机制尚不清楚。探究了皮蛋模拟胃肠道消化物(preserved eggs simulated gastrointestinal digests,PESD)对人肝癌HepG2细胞增殖和细胞周期的影响。将皮蛋经体外模拟胃肠道消化处理后,进行细胞实验,用CCK-8法进行细胞增殖分析,研究PESD对HepG2细胞存活率的影响,采用碘化丙啶(propidium iodide, PI)染色标记的方法,通过流式细胞术测定PESD对HepG2细胞周期的影响,用western blot法测定细胞周期相关调控蛋白的表达。研究发现:PESD以剂量依赖性方式对HepG2细胞增殖进行抑制,IC₅₀为4.17mg/mL;PESD处理显著增加了S期细胞的占比(P<0.05),使HepG2细胞阻滞于S期;4mg/mL的PESD处理HepG2细胞24h后,细胞中cyclin A、cyclin E、ATM、chk2和CDC25A的蛋白表达水平上升(P<0.05),而CDK2蛋白表达水平下降(P<0.05)。研究认为,皮蛋模拟胃肠道消化物是以剂量依赖性的方式来抑制人肝癌HepG2细胞的增殖,主要是通过ATM-chk2-CDC25A信号通路,上调cyclin A和cyclin E蛋白的表达,下调CDK2蛋白的表达来实现人肝癌HepG2细胞阻滞于S期,影响人肝癌HepG2细胞周期进程,抑制癌细胞的增殖。研究结果旨在为皮蛋抗癌作用机制的阐明提供一定的理论基础。     

Emi1 is required for cytostatic factor arrest in vertebrate eggs

Vertebrate eggs are arrested at metaphase of meiosis II with stable cyclin B and high cyclin B/Cdc2 kinase activity. The ability of the anaphase-promoting complex/cyclosome (APC), an E3 ubiquitin ligase, to trigger cyclin B destruction and metaphase exit is blocked in eggs by the activity of cytostatic factor (CSF) (reviewed in ref. 1). CSF was defined as an activity in mature oocytes that caused mitotic arrest when injected into dividing embryos. Fertilization causes a transient increase in cytoplasmic calcium concentration leading to CSF inactivation, APC activation, cyclin B destruction and mitotic exit. The APC activator Cdc20 is required for APC activation after fertilization. We show here that the APC(cdc20) inhibitor Emi1 (ref. 6) is necessary and sufficient to inhibit the APC and to prevent mitotic exit in CSF-arrested eggs. CSF extracts immunodepleted of Emi1 degrade cyclin B, and exit from mitosis prematurely in the absence of calcium. Addition of Emi1 to these Emi1-depleted extracts blocks premature inactivation of the CSF-arrested state. Emi1 is required to arrest unfertilized eggs at metaphase of meiosis II and seems to be the long-sought mediator of CSF activity.     

环境中有机磷酸酯阻燃剂（TDCP、TECP、TCPP）对人胚肾细胞（HEK293）的影响(英)

水环境中的微污染物有机磷酸酯如三(2-氯乙基)磷酸酯(TCEP)、三(2-氯-异丙基)磷酸酯(TCPP)和三(1,3-二氯丙基)磷酸酯(TDCP)主要用作聚氨酯泡沫塑料的阻燃剂。物理、化学和生物处理很难完全消除这些污染物。本研究的目的是研究阻燃剂在环境水平和较高浓度下对人细胞系的细胞毒性和细胞周期效应。结果表明,在浓度为0.001 mg/L和0.01mg/L时,只有TDCP具有轻微的细胞毒性,而当这三种化学物质浓度100 mg/L以上时对细胞毒性有显著的诱导作用。TCEP和TCPP的EC50分别为276.8 mg/L和58.4mg/L。三种药物均能抑制CDK 4的表达,TDCP能增加CDK 2和cyclin E的表达,而TCEP和TCPP在CDK 2和cyclin E的表达上表现出自差现象。TDCP和TCEP使细胞数量减少,细胞形态发生改变。可见三种化学物质对HEK 293细胞的杀伤作用可能是通过抑制CDK 4调节蛋白而产生的。