Dynamics of human adipose lipid turnover in health and metabolic disease

Adipose tissue mass is determined by the storage and removal of triglycerides in adipocytes. Little is known, however, about adipose lipid turnover in humans in health and pathology. To study this in vivo, here we determined lipid age by measuring (14)C derived from above ground nuclear bomb tests in adipocyte lipids. We report that during the average ten-year lifespan of human adipocytes, triglycerides are renewed six times. Lipid age is independent of adipocyte size, is very stable across a wide range of adult ages and does not differ between genders. Adipocyte lipid turnover, however, is strongly related to conditions with disturbed lipid metabolism. In obesity, triglyceride removal rate (lipolysis followed by oxidation) is decreased and the amount of triglycerides stored each year is increased. In contrast, both lipid removal and storage rates are decreased in non-obese patients diagnosed with the most common hereditary form of dyslipidaemia, familial combined hyperlipidaemia. Lipid removal rate is positively correlated with the capacity of adipocytes to break down triglycerides, as assessed through lipolysis, and is inversely related to insulin resistance. Our data support a mechanism in which adipocyte lipid storage and removal have different roles in health and pathology. High storage but low triglyceride removal promotes fat tissue accumulation and obesity. Reduction of both triglyceride storage and removal decreases lipid shunting through adipose tissue and thus promotes dyslipidaemia. We identify adipocyte lipid turnover as a novel target for prevention and treatment of metabolic disease.     

肥胖／糖尿病过程中大鼠不同部位脂肪细胞大小的比较

为比较大鼠肥胖／糖尿病过程中脂肪分布及脂肪细胞大小的变化,初步阐明脂肪细胞大小与2型糖尿病发生相关性。将Wistar雄性大鼠随机分为3组,每组12只：普通饮食组（正常对照）,高脂饮食组（肥胖）,高脂饮食＋链脲佐菌素组（糖尿病组）。第0周随机抽取6只大鼠处死后,取皮下脂肪及腹膜内脂肪,用2．5％甲醛乙醇溶液固定,进行石蜡包埋,HE染色,制成切片。在400倍光学显微镜下随机选取10个视野检测统计脂肪细胞数量及面积大小（mm^2）。在饲养过程中分别选取第6、9、12、14周等4个时间点,每个时间点各组随机处死2只大鼠,取皮下脂肪及腹膜内脂肪进行相同处理。同时,在各个时间点对大鼠体重、血糖进行检测。各组大鼠皮下脂肪细胞与腹膜内脂肪细胞大小差异均有统计学意义（F=9．653,P=0．001;F=160．605,P=0．000）,其中正常组与肥胖组、正常组与糖尿病组差异都有统计学意义,而肥胖组与糖尿病组差异无统计学意义。不同部位脂肪细胞大小的差异无统计学意义。脂肪细胞的体积增大,与大鼠体重及血糖变化相平行。大鼠脂肪细胞的体积增大与肥胖／糖尿病的演进过程相平行,大鼠脂肪组织的分布与脂肪细胞的大小无明显相关性。     

MicroRNAs 103 and 107 regulate insulin sensitivity

Defects in insulin signalling are among the most common and earliest defects that predispose an individual to the development of type 2 diabetes. MicroRNAs have been identified as a new class of regulatory molecules that influence many biological functions, including metabolism. However, the direct regulation of insulin sensitivity by microRNAs in vivo has not been demonstrated. Here we show that the expression of microRNAs 103 and 107 (miR-103/107) is upregulated in obese mice. Silencing of miR-103/107 leads to improved glucose homeostasis and insulin sensitivity. In contrast, gain of miR-103/107 function in either liver or fat is sufficient to induce impaired glucose homeostasis. We identify caveolin-1, a critical regulator of the insulin receptor, as a direct target gene of miR-103/107. We demonstrate that caveolin-1 is upregulated upon miR-103/107 inactivation in adipocytes and that this is concomitant with stabilization of the insulin receptor, enhanced insulin signalling, decreased adipocyte size and enhanced insulin-stimulated glucose uptake. These findings demonstrate the central importance of miR-103/107 to insulin sensitivity and identify a new target for the treatment of type 2 diabetes and obesity.     

Molecular cloning and characterization of an insulin-regulatable glucose transporter

A major mechanism by which insulin stimulates glucose transport in muscle and fat is the translocation of glucose transporters from an intracellular membrane pool to the cell surface. The existence of a distinct insulin-regulatable glucose transporter was suggested by the poor cross-reactivity between antibodies specific for either the HepG2 or rat brain glucose transporters and the rat adipocyte glucose transporter. More direct evidence was provided by the production of a monoclonal antibody (mAb 1F8) specific for the rat adipocyte glucose transporter that immunolabels a species of relative molecular mass 43,000 (43K) present only in tissues that exhibit insulin-dependent glucose transport, suggesting that this protein may be encoded by a different gene from the previously described mammalian glucose transporters. This antibody has been used to immunoprecipitate a 43K protein that was photoaffinity-labelled with cytochalasin B in a glucose displaceable way, and to immunolabel a protein in the plasma membrane of rat adipocytes, whose concentration was increased at least fivefold after cellular insulin exposure. Here we describe the cloning and sequencing of cDNAs isolated from both rat adipocyte and heart libraries that encode a protein recognized by mAb 1F8, and which has 65% sequence identity to the human HepG2 glucose transporter. This cDNA hybridizes to an mRNA present only in skeletal muscle, heart and adipose tissue. Our data indicate that this cDNA encodes a membrane protein with the characteristics of the translocatable glucose transporter expressed in insulin-responsive tissues.     

Adipocytes as regulators of energy balance and glucose homeostasis

Adipocytes have been studied with increasing intensity as a result of the emergence of obesity as a serious public health problem and the realization that adipose tissue serves as an integrator of various physiological pathways. In particular, their role in calorie storage makes adipocytes well suited to the regulation of energy balance. Adipose tissue also serves as a crucial integrator of glucose homeostasis. Knowledge of adipocyte biology is therefore crucial for understanding the pathophysiological basis of obesity and metabolic diseases such as type 2 diabetes. Furthermore, the rational manipulation of adipose physiology is a promising avenue for therapy of these conditions.     

组织蛋白酶B在棉铃虫个体发育过程中的表达及活性研究

运用原位水解电泳、免疫印迹和免疫组织化学等方法系统研究了组织蛋白酶B（HCB）在棉铃虫个体发育过程中的表达及活性变化规律．研究显示,HCB的表达和活性随着胚胎发育的进行逐渐下降;整个幼虫阶段都没有HCB的表达和活性;整个蛹和成虫阶段虽然都有HCB的表达,但HCB的活性只能在发育晚期的蛹和成虫组织中检测到．这些现象表明,HCB的表达和活化属于翻译后控制,同时与棉铃虫的个体发育和组织分化有着密切的关系、     

用皮褶厚度、体脂率评价江淮汉族肥胖标准初探

为了探讨用皮褶厚度、体脂率法评价江淮地区汉族肥胖的标准,于2010年在安徽滁州和江苏淮安调查了1 426例(城市男性309例,乡村男性414例,城市女性312例,乡村女性391例)江淮汉族成年人的身高、体重、肱三头肌皮褶、肩胛下皮褶,通过身高、体重来计算身体质量指数(BMI),通过肱三头肌皮褶、肩胛下皮褶来计算体密度,采用Brozek公式计算体脂率.用BMI、皮褶厚度、体脂率分别评价江淮汉族成年人的肥胖率.结果表明:(1)江淮汉族男性BMI值为(24.1±3.6)kg/m2,女性BMI值为(23.8±3.6)kg/m2.用BMI法判断,江淮汉族超重率男性为34.7%,女性为30.7%;肥胖率男性为14.4%,女性为13.2%.(2)随年龄增长,肱三头肌皮褶、肩胛下皮褶值、BMI、体脂率增大,身高下降.(3)用长岭晋吉皮褶厚度法判断,江淮汉族肥胖率男性为39.8%,女性为30.4%.皮褶厚度法得出的肥胖率远远高于BMI法,两种方法存在较大矛盾.本研究认为用肱三头肌皮褶与肩胛下皮褶之和来判断中国人群肥胖的标准,男性应该在35~45 mm之间,女性应该在45~55 mm之间选取.(4)用长岭晋吉体脂率法作为判断肥胖的标准,肥胖率男性为43.3%,女性为5.3%.用体脂率和BMI法判断江淮汉族成年人的肥胖存在较大矛盾.长岭晋吉体脂率法男性标准定得太低;女性标准定得太高.本研究认为用体脂率来判断江淮地区汉族肥胖,男性以大于24%、女性以大于28%为宜.     

Autoantibodies to the insulin receptor in juvenile onset insulin-dependent diabetes

Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) usually begins in childhood or early adulthood, and its aetiology is thought to involve autoimmune damage to the islet cells that secrete insulin. To investigate an additional target of autoimmunity in IDDM we examined sera for antibodies to insulin receptors. Such antibodies were defined by their ability to compete with insulin for binding to insulin receptors and by their capacity to behave like insulin in activating lipogenesis in adipocytes. We now report the occurrence of anti-insulin receptor antibodies of the IgM class in the sera of 10 of 22 IDDM patients obtained before their treatment with exogenous insulin. Furthermore, two of five IDDM patients who were initially negative developed anti-insulin receptor antibodies during treatment with human or pork insulin. These findings suggest that autoimmunity to the insulin receptor may contribute to the pathophysiology of IDDM.     

Germline stem cells and follicular renewal in the postnatal mammalian ovary

A basic doctrine of reproductive biology is that most mammalian females lose the capacity for germ-cell renewal during fetal life, such that a fixed reserve of germ cells (oocytes) enclosed within follicles is endowed at birth. Here we show that juvenile and adult mouse ovaries possess mitotically active germ cells that, based on rates of oocyte degeneration (atresia) and clearance, are needed to continuously replenish the follicle pool. Consistent with this, treatment of prepubertal female mice with the mitotic germ-cell toxicant busulphan eliminates the primordial follicle reserve by early adulthood without inducing atresia. Furthermore, we demonstrate cells expressing the meiotic entry marker synaptonemal complex protein 3 in juvenile and adult mouse ovaries. Wild-type ovaries grafted into transgenic female mice with ubiquitous expression of green fluorescent protein (GFP) become infiltrated with GFP-positive germ cells that form follicles. Collectively, these data establish the existence of proliferative germ cells that sustain oocyte and follicle production in the postnatal mammalian ovary.     

Clonally dominant cardiomyocytes direct heart morphogenesis

As vertebrate embryos develop to adulthood, their organs undergo marked changes in size and tissue architecture. The heart acquires muscle mass and matures structurally to fulfil increasing circulatory needs, a process that is incompletely understood. Here we used multicolour clonal analysis to define the contributions of individual cardiomyocytes as the zebrafish heart undergoes morphogenesis from a primitive embryonic structure into its complex adult form. We find that the single-cardiomyocyte-thick wall of the juvenile ventricle forms by lateral expansion of several dozen cardiomyocytes into muscle patches of variable sizes and shapes. As juvenile zebrafish mature into adults, this structure becomes fully enveloped by a new lineage of cortical muscle. Adult cortical muscle originates from a small number of cardiomyocytes--an average of approximately eight per animal--that display clonal dominance reminiscent of stem cell populations. Cortical cardiomyocytes initially emerge from internal myofibres that in rare events breach the juvenile ventricular wall, and then expand over the surface. Our results illuminate the dynamic proliferative behaviours that generate adult cardiac structure, revealing clonal dominance as a key mechanism that shapes a vertebrate organ.     

普通高校一二年级大学生体脂状况分析

本研究通过对186名普通高校一二年级大学生体脂状况的实验测试和分析。研究表明:大学一二年级学生腹部肥胖、体脂率水平接近正常水平下限,二年级女生腹部肥胖水平位于皮下型,男生体脂率处于偏瘦等级;二年级腹部肥胖、体脂率、身体质量指数均低于一年级;对于一二年级大学生而言,体重不足问题远比肥胖更严重;体脂率与身体质量指数的相关系数男生为0.858,女生为0.787,表明采用身体质量指数描述高校学生身体充实度效度较高;男生各年级身体年龄处于正常状态,女生偏"衰老化",尤其是二年级女生;各年级的男生、女生体重均低于标准体重。     

腺病毒36型对PPARγ和CIDEC在脂肪细胞分化过程的调节作用

 为探讨腺病毒36 型在人脂肪细胞分化过程中对PPARγ及CIDEC 基因表达的调节作用,利用腺病毒感染人脂肪源性间充质干细胞(hAMSC)、油红O 染色和RT-qPCR 鉴定Ad36 诱导hAMSC 分化为脂肪细胞模型;葡萄糖氧化酶法和甘油三酯终点法测定人类腺病毒36 型(Ad36)诱导hAMSC 分化为脂肪细胞的过程中培养基葡萄糖浓度及细胞甘油三酯含量;RT-qPCR、Western Blotting 方法检测Ad36 诱导的人脂肪细胞中,PPARγ和CIDEC 蛋白表达水平的变化;用PPARγ特异性抑制剂GW9662 抑制PPARγ表达后,Western Blotting 方法检测Ad36 诱导的人脂肪细胞中CIDEC 蛋白质的表达。Ad36 诱导的hAM-SC 定向分化成人脂肪细胞,分化过程中培养基葡萄糖含量较对照组显著降低(P<0.05),细胞内甘油三酯含量较对照组显著升高(P<0.05),PPARγ和CIDEC 基因表达水平较对照组显著升高(P<0.05),在诱导第6 天表达水平最高,在使用GW9662 抑制PPARγ蛋白质表达后,CIDEC 蛋白质表达水平较对照组显著降低(P<0.05)。从细胞水平证实,Ad36 诱导人脂肪细胞分化过程中,Ad36 通过PPARγ上调CIDEC 基因的表达水平。     

Sirt1 promotes fat mobilization in white adipocytes by repressing PPAR-gamma

Calorie restriction extends lifespan in organisms ranging from yeast to mammals. In yeast, the SIR2 gene mediates the life-extending effects of calorie restriction. Here we show that the mammalian SIR2 orthologue, Sirt1 (sirtuin 1), activates a critical component of calorie restriction in mammals; that is, fat mobilization in white adipocytes. Upon food withdrawal Sirt1 protein binds to and represses genes controlled by the fat regulator PPAR-gamma (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma), including genes mediating fat storage. Sirt1 represses PPAR-gamma by docking with its cofactors NCoR (nuclear receptor co-repressor) and SMRT (silencing mediator of retinoid and thyroid hormone receptors). Mobilization of fatty acids from white adipocytes upon fasting is compromised in Sirt1+/- mice. Repression of PPAR-gamma by Sirt1 is also evident in 3T3-L1 adipocytes, where overexpression of Sirt1 attenuates adipogenesis, and RNA interference of Sirt1 enhances it. In differentiated fat cells, upregulation of Sirt1 triggers lipolysis and loss of fat. As a reduction in fat is sufficient to extend murine lifespan, our results provide a possible molecular pathway connecting calorie restriction to life extension in mammals.     

Adult pancreatic beta-cells are formed by self-duplication rather than stem-cell differentiation

How tissues generate and maintain the correct number of cells is a fundamental problem in biology. In principle, tissue turnover can occur by the differentiation of stem cells, as is well documented for blood, skin and intestine, or by the duplication of existing differentiated cells. Recent work on adult stem cells has highlighted their potential contribution to organ maintenance and repair. However, the extent to which stem cells actually participate in these processes in vivo is not clear. Here we introduce a method for genetic lineage tracing to determine the contribution of stem cells to a tissue of interest. We focus on pancreatic beta-cells, whose postnatal origins remain controversial. Our analysis shows that pre-existing beta-cells, rather than pluripotent stem cells, are the major source of new beta-cells during adult life and after pancreatectomy in mice. These results suggest that terminally differentiated beta-cells retain a significant proliferative capacity in vivo and cast doubt on the idea that adult stem cells have a significant role in beta-cell replenishment.     

双能X线吸收测量法（DEXA）测定成年人单纯性肥胖症脂肪含量研究

 为研究肥胖症定量诊断分析与价值,应用双能X线吸收测量法(DEXA)对120例肥胖者及对照组80例正常体质量者进行全身脂肪含量测定,研究不同年龄段、性别的肥胖症患者及正常体质量人体内脂肪含量及分布规律,探讨肥胖症患者及正常体质量者DEXA的诊断指标。结果显示利用DEXA测定脂肪含量与体质量指数法（BMI）关系比较,男性相关系数r＝0.871（P<0.001）,表明两种评价方法的一致性较好;女性相关系数r＝0.521（P<0.001）,两种评价方法的一致性一般;诊断单纯性肥胖最佳“切点”男性为19.45%,女性为34.00%。故DEXA测量人体内全身的脂肪含量可进行诊断肥胖症及定量分析。     

Multi-isotope imaging mass spectrometry quantifies stem cell division and metabolism

Mass spectrometry with stable isotope labels has been seminal in discovering the dynamic state of living matter, but is limited to bulk tissues or cells. We developed multi-isotope imaging mass spectrometry (MIMS) that allowed us to view and measure stable isotope incorporation with submicrometre resolution. Here we apply MIMS to diverse organisms, including Drosophila, mice and humans. We test the 'immortal strand hypothesis', which predicts that during asymmetric stem cell division chromosomes containing older template DNA are segregated to the daughter destined to remain a stem cell, thus insuring lifetime genetic stability. After labelling mice with (15)N-thymidine from gestation until post-natal week 8, we find no (15)N label retention by dividing small intestinal crypt cells after a four-week chase. In adult mice administered (15)N-thymidine pulse-chase, we find that proliferating crypt cells dilute the (15)N label, consistent with random strand segregation. We demonstrate the broad utility of MIMS with proof-of-principle studies of lipid turnover in Drosophila and translation to the human haematopoietic system. These studies show that MIMS provides high-resolution quantification of stable isotope labels that cannot be obtained using other techniques and that is broadly applicable to biological and medical research.     

湖南宁乡县乡村汉族体型分析

 运用Heath-Carter体型法,对湖南宁乡县乡村418例(男197例,女221例)汉族成人体型进行了分析.研究发现:① 湖南宁乡县乡村汉族男性平均体型值为3.5-5.3-1.8,属于偏内胚层的中胚层体型;女性平均体型值为4.9-4.9-1.4,属于内胚层中胚层均衡体型.② 男性以30岁为体型分界点,30岁前男性肌肉较发达而体脂相对菲薄,30岁后随年龄增长皮下脂肪积累量增加但体型变化不大;女性以40岁为体型分界点,40岁前随年龄增长肌肉渐趋发达,身体线性度下降.40岁后肌肉和脂肪含量呈下降趋势但体型变化不明显.③ 湖南宁乡县乡村汉族成人体型性别间存在显著性差异.与其他群体相比,宁乡县男性平均体型与鄂温克族(SAD=0.36)和山东乡村汉族(SAD=0.37)最为接近,女性平均体型与鄂温克族(SAD=0.59)最接近.     

The hormone resistin links obesity to diabetes

Diabetes mellitus is a chronic disease that leads to complications including heart disease, stroke, kidney failure, blindness and nerve damage. Type 2 diabetes, characterized by target-tissue resistance to insulin, is epidemic in industrialized societies and is strongly associated with obesity; however, the mechanism by which increased adiposity causes insulin resistance is unclear. Here we show that adipocytes secrete a unique signalling molecule, which we have named resistin (for resistance to insulin). Circulating resistin levels are decreased by the anti-diabetic drug rosiglitazone, and increased in diet-induced and genetic forms of obesity. Administration of anti-resistin antibody improves blood sugar and insulin action in mice with diet-induced obesity. Moreover, treatment of normal mice with recombinant resistin impairs glucose tolerance and insulin action. Insulin-stimulated glucose uptake by adipocytes is enhanced by neutralization of resistin and is reduced by resistin treatment. Resistin is thus a hormone that potentially links obesity to diabetes.