Natural history and evolutionary principles of gene duplication in fungi

Gene duplication and loss is a powerful source of functional innovation. However, the general principles that govern this process are still largely unknown. With the growing number of sequenced genomes, it is now possible to examine these events in a comprehensive and unbiased manner. Here, we develop a procedure that resolves the evolutionary history of all genes in a large group of species. We apply our procedure to seventeen fungal genomes to create a genome-wide catalogue of gene trees that determine precise orthology and paralogy relations across these species. We show that gene duplication and loss is highly constrained by the functional properties and interacting partners of genes. In particular, stress-related genes exhibit many duplications and losses, whereas growth-related genes show selection against such changes. Whole-genome duplication circumvents this constraint and relaxes the dichotomy, resulting in an expanded functional scope of gene duplication. By characterizing the functional fate of duplicate genes we show that duplicated genes rarely diverge with respect to biochemical function, but typically diverge with respect to regulatory control. Surprisingly, paralogous modules of genes rarely arise, even after whole-genome duplication. Rather, gene duplication may drive the modularization of functional networks through specialization, thereby disentangling cellular systems.     

Ancestral polyploidy in seed plants and angiosperms

Whole-genome duplication (WGD), or polyploidy, followed by gene loss and diploidization has long been recognized as an important evolutionary force in animals, fungi and other organisms, especially plants. The success of angiosperms has been attributed, in part, to innovations associated with gene or whole-genome duplications, but evidence for proposed ancient genome duplications pre-dating the divergence of monocots and eudicots remains equivocal in analyses of conserved gene order. Here we use comprehensive phylogenomic analyses of sequenced plant genomes and more than 12.6 million new expressed-sequence-tag sequences from phylogenetically pivotal lineages to elucidate two groups of ancient gene duplications-one in the common ancestor of extant seed plants and the other in the common ancestor of extant angiosperms. Gene duplication events were intensely concentrated around 319 and 192 million years ago, implicating two WGDs in ancestral lineages shortly before the diversification of extant seed plants and extant angiosperms, respectively. Significantly, these ancestral WGDs resulted in the diversification of regulatory genes important to seed and flower development, suggesting that they were involved in major innovations that ultimately contributed to the rise and eventual dominance of seed plants and angiosperms.     

Shotgun sequence assembly and recent segmental duplications within the human genome

Complex eukaryotic genomes are now being sequenced at an accelerated pace primarily using whole-genome shotgun (WGS) sequence assembly approaches. WGS assembly was initially criticized because of its perceived inability to resolve repeat structures within genomes. Here, we quantify the effect of WGS sequence assembly on large, highly similar repeats by comparison of the segmental duplication content of two different human genome assemblies. Our analysis shows that large (> 15 kilobases) and highly identical (> 97%) duplications are not adequately resolved by WGS assembly. This leads to significant reduction in genome length and the loss of genes embedded within duplications. Comparable analyses of mouse genome assemblies confirm that strict WGS sequence assembly will oversimplify our understanding of mammalian genome structure and evolution; a hybrid strategy using a targeted clone-by-clone approach to resolve duplications is proposed.     

Analysis of the genome sequence of the flowering plant Arabidopsis thaliana

The flowering plant Arabidopsis thaliana is an important model system for identifying genes and determining their functions. Here we report the analysis of the genomic sequence of Arabidopsis. The sequenced regions cover 115.4 megabases of the 125-megabase genome and extend into centromeric regions. The evolution of Arabidopsis involved a whole-genome duplication, followed by subsequent gene loss and extensive local gene duplications, giving rise to a dynamic genome enriched by lateral gene transfer from a cyanobacterial-like ancestor of the plastid. The genome contains 25,498 genes encoding proteins from 11,000 families, similar to the functional diversity of Drosophila and Caenorhabditis elegans--the other sequenced multicellular eukaryotes. Arabidopsis has many families of new proteins but also lacks several common protein families, indicating that the sets of common proteins have undergone differential expansion and contraction in the three multicellular eukaryotes. This is the first complete genome sequence of a plant and provides the foundations for more comprehensive comparison of conserved processes in all eukaryotes, identifying a wide range of plant-specific gene functions and establishing rapid systematic ways to identify genes for crop improvement.     

Proof and evolutionary analysis of ancient genome duplication in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Whole-genome duplication followed by massive gene loss and specialization has long been postulated as a powerful mechanism of evolutionary innovation. Recently, it has become possible to test this notion by searching complete genome sequence for signs of ancient duplication. Here, we show that the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae arose from ancient whole-genome duplication, by sequencing and analysing Kluyveromyces waltii, a related yeast species that diverged before the duplication. The two genomes are related by a 1:2 mapping, with each region of K. waltii corresponding to two regions of S. cerevisiae, as expected for whole-genome duplication. This resolves the long-standing controversy on the ancestry of the yeast genome, and makes it possible to study the fate of duplicated genes directly. Strikingly, 95% of cases of accelerated evolution involve only one member of a gene pair, providing strong support for a specific model of evolution, and allowing us to distinguish ancestral and derived functions.     

Positive darwinian selection at the imprinted MEDEA locus in plants

In mammals and seed plants, a subset of genes is regulated by genomic imprinting where an allele's activity depends on its parental origin. The parental conflict theory suggests that genomic imprinting evolved after the emergence of an embryo-nourishing tissue (placenta and endosperm), resulting in an intragenomic parental conflict over the allocation of nutrients from mother to offspring. It was predicted that imprinted genes, which arose through antagonistic co-evolution driven by a parental conflict, should be subject to positive darwinian selection. Here we show that the imprinted plant gene MEDEA (MEA), which is essential for seed development, originated during a whole-genome duplication 35 to 85 million years ago. After duplication, MEA underwent positive darwinian selection consistent with neo-functionalization and the parental conflict theory. MEA continues to evolve rapidly in the out-crossing species Arabidopsis lyrata but not in the self-fertilizing species Arabidopsis thaliana, where parental conflicts are reduced. The paralogue of MEA, SWINGER (SWN; also called EZA1), is not imprinted and evolved under strong purifying selection because it probably retained the ancestral function of the common precursor gene. The evolution of MEA suggests a late origin of genomic imprinting within the Brassicaceae, whereas imprinting is thought to have originated early within the mammalian lineage.     

SPL家族基因复制及功能分化分析

【目的】基因复制及随后的功能分化是基因组和物种演化的重要驱动力。植物特有的转录因子家族SPL(SQUAMOSA-promoter binding protein like)广泛参与调控植物生长发育及响应逆境胁迫,为研究重复基因的起源方式和进化命运提供了良好的研究系统。本研究对葡萄(Vitis vinifera)、番木瓜(Carica papaya)、毛果杨(Populus trichocarpa)和拟南芥(Arabidopsis thaliana)4种模式植物的SPL基因家族开展基因复制及功能分化分析,为进一步研究SPL基因功能、预测种属特异性的功能基因提供系统进化角度的参考。【方法】利用SBP特征结构域,鉴定葡萄、番木瓜、毛果杨和拟南芥4种模式植物中SPL基因家族成员,并利用最大似然法构建系统进化树。基于物种内、物种间基因组共线性,分析SPL基因家族发生基因复制的方式及差异保留情况,并计算保留的SPL直系和旁系同源基因的同义、非同义替换率,分析功能分化情况。【结果】在4种模式植物中共鉴定出SPL基因73个,其中42个是miR156的靶基因。系统进化分析显示:73个SPL基因聚类为9个主要分支,miR156靶向SPL基因成簇聚集在6个主要分支;Clade I中SPL基因编码的2个锌指结构基序为C4和C₂HC,而其余8个分支中SPL基因的锌指结构基序由C3H和C₂HC组成。大规模基因组复制事件(片段复制或全基因组复制)是SPL基因家族发生基因重复的主要方式。根据基因组复制事件推算,15个古基因位点理论上应复制出的360个位点中,83.6%的重复位点发生丢失或演化成非SPL基因。本研究鉴定出旁系同源基因17对,直系同源基因27对,且所有旁系和直系同源基因的K_a/K_s(非同义替换率和同义替换率之比)值均小于1。【结论】在不同物种中保留下来的SPL直系同源基因受到较强的纯化选择,在功能上具有保守性;同一物种中保留下来的SPL旁系同源基因在进化过程中维持部分功能冗余,但在组织表达偏好性和蛋白功能上已呈现出不同形式的分化。     

Analysis of the DNA sequence and duplication history of human chromosome 15

Here we present a finished sequence of human chromosome 15, together with a high-quality gene catalogue. As chromosome 15 is one of seven human chromosomes with a high rate of segmental duplication, we have carried out a detailed analysis of the duplication structure of the chromosome. Segmental duplications in chromosome 15 are largely clustered in two regions, on proximal and distal 15q; the proximal region is notable because recombination among the segmental duplications can result in deletions causing Prader-Willi and Angelman syndromes. Sequence analysis shows that the proximal and distal regions of 15q share extensive ancient similarity. Using a simple approach, we have been able to reconstruct many of the events by which the current duplication structure arose. We find that most of the intrachromosomal duplications seem to share a common ancestry. Finally, we demonstrate that some remaining gaps in the genome sequence are probably due to structural polymorphisms between haplotypes; this may explain a significant fraction of the gaps remaining in the human genome.     

Escape from adaptive conflict after duplication in an anthocyanin pathway gene

Gene duplications have been recognized as an important source of evolutionary innovation and adaptation since at least Haldane, and their varying fates may partly explain the vast disparity in observed genome sizes. The expected fates of most gene duplications involve primarily non-adaptive substitutions leading to either non-functionalization of one duplicate copy or subfunctionalization, neither of which yields novel function. A significant evolutionary problem is thus elucidating the mechanisms of adaptive evolutionary change leading to evolutionary novelty. Currently, the most widely recognized adaptive process involving gene duplication is neo-functionalization (NEO-F), in which one copy undergoes directional selection to perform a novel function after duplication. An alternative, but understudied, adaptive fate that has been proposed is escape from adaptive conflict (EAC), in which a single-copy gene is selected to perform a novel function while maintaining its ancestral function. This gene is constrained from improving either novel or ancestral function because of detrimental pleiotropic effects on the other function. After duplication, one copy is free to improve novel function, whereas the other is selected to improve ancestral function. Here we first present two criteria that can be used to distinguish NEO-F from EAC. Using both tests for positive selection and assays of enzyme function, we then demonstrate that adaptive evolutionary change in a duplicated gene of the anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway in morning glories (Ipomoea) is best interpreted as EAC. Finally, we argue that this phenomenon likely occurs more often than has been previously believed and may thus represent an important mechanism in generating evolutionary novelty.     

甘蓝型油菜BnHY5基因的表达模式及非生物胁迫响应分析

为探究甘蓝型油菜中HY5的表达情况,首先通过甘蓝型油菜基因组数据分析预测HY5及其同源基因HYH(HY5-Homologous),克隆获得了四个HY5(命名为BnHY5)以及三个HYH(命名为BnHYH)重复基因全长cDNA序列.其次,对BnHY5进行了蛋白结构预测、理化性质分析,研究结果表明:BnHY5蛋白为不稳定、亲水性蛋白,主要结构域为亮氨酸拉链.最后,探究了甘蓝型油菜中该基因的表达情况,用荧光定量PCR分析了BnHY5重复基因表达模式和响应非生物胁迫的情况,BnHY5四个基因中,BnHY5-2的表达水平最高,BnHY5-1、BnHY5-2不存在组织表达差异且表达水平高于BnHY5-3、BnHY5-4.BnHY5基因不仅响应高温、低温、镉、高盐非生物胁迫,而且参与ABA和GA_3激素信号响应,说明BnHY5在逆境胁迫中有重要作用.此外BnHY5重复基因在非生物胁迫下的表达模式发生改变,BnHY5四个基因的表达占比与不同类型胁迫处理相关,存在表达差异.     

Embryological and molecular investigations of parental imprinting on mouse chromosome 7

Mouse embryos with duplications of whole maternal (parthenogenetic and gynogenetic) or paternal (androgenetic) genomes show reciprocal phenotypes and do not develop to term. Genetic complementation has identified the distal region of chromosome 7 (Chr 7) as one of the regions for which both a maternal and paternal chromosome copy are essential for normal development, presumably because of the presence of imprinted genes whose expression is dependent on their parental origin. Embryos with the maternal duplication and paternal deficiency of distal Chr 7 are growth retarded and die around day 16 of gestation; the reciprocal paternal duplication embryos die at an unidentified earlier stage. We report here the incorporation of cells with the paternal duplication into chimaeras, resulting in a striking growth enhancement of the embryos. One gene located on mouse distal Chr 7 (ref. 5) is the insulin-like growth factor 2 (Igf2) gene, an embryonic mitogen. In embryos with the maternal duplication of distal Chr 7, the two maternal alleles of the Igf2 gene are repressed. The presence of two paternal alleles of this gene in many cells is probably responsible for the growth enhancement observed in chimaeras. We propose that there are other imprinted genes in this Chr 7 region. We also compare the imprinting of this subgenomic region with phenotypes resulting from the duplication of the whole parental genome in parthenogenones and androgenones.     

Yeast genome duplication was followed by asynchronous differentiation of duplicated genes

Gene redundancy has been observed in yeast, plant and human genomes, and is thought to be a consequence of whole-genome duplications. Baker's yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, contains several hundred duplicated genes. Duplication(s) could have occurred before or after a given speciation. To understand the evolution of the yeast genome, we analysed orthologues of some of these genes in several related yeast species. On the basis of the inferred phylogeny of each set of genes, we were able to deduce whether the gene duplicated and/or specialized before or after the divergence of two yeast lineages. Here we show that the gene duplications might have occurred as a single event, and that it probably took place before the Saccharomyces and Kluyveromyces lineages diverged from each other. Further evolution of each duplicated gene pair-such as specialization or differentiation of the two copies, or deletion of a single copy--has taken place independently throughout the evolution of these species.     

Unravelling angiosperm genome evolution by phylogenetic analysis of chromosomal duplication events

Conservation of gene order in vertebrates is evident after hundreds of millions of years of divergence, but comparisons of the Arabidopsis thaliana sequence to partial gene orders of other angiosperms (flowering plants) sharing common ancestry approximately 170-235 million years ago yield conflicting results. This difference may be largely due to the propensity of angiosperms to undergo chromosomal duplication ('polyploidization') and subsequent gene loss ('diploidization'); these evolutionary mechanisms have profound consequences for comparative biology. Here we integrate a phylogenetic approach (relating chromosomal duplications to the tree of life) with a genomic approach (mitigating information lost to diploidization) to show that a genome-wide duplication post-dates the divergence of Arabidopsis from most dicots. We also show that an inferred ancestral gene order for Arabidopsis reveals more synteny with other dicots (exemplified by cotton), and that additional, more ancient duplication events affect more distant taxonomic comparisons. By using partial sequence data for many diverse taxa to better relate the evolutionary history of completely sequenced genomes to the tree of life, we foster comparative approaches to the study of genome organization, consequences of polyploidy, and the molecular basis of quantitative traits.     

Gene duplication plays a major role in gene co-option: Studies into the evolution of the motilin/ghrelin family and their receptors

Extant genes can be modified, or ‘tinkered with’, to provide new roles or new characteristics of these genes. At the genetic level, this often involves gene duplication and specialization of the resulting genes into particular functions. We investigate how ligand-receptor partnerships evolve after gene duplication. While significant work has been conducted in this area, the examination of additional models should help us better understand the proposed models and potentially reveal novel evolutionary pattern...     

A genome-wide comparison of recent chimpanzee and human segmental duplications

We present a global comparison of differences in content of segmental duplication between human and chimpanzee, and determine that 33% of human duplications (> 94% sequence identity) are not duplicated in chimpanzee, including some human disease-causing duplications. Combining experimental and computational approaches, we estimate a genomic duplication rate of 4-5 megabases per million years since divergence. These changes have resulted in gene expression differences between the species. In terms of numbers of base pairs affected, we determine that de novo duplication has contributed most significantly to differences between the species, followed by deletion of ancestral duplications. Post-speciation gene conversion accounts for less than 10% of recent segmental duplication. Chimpanzee-specific hyperexpansion (> 100 copies) of particular segments of DNA have resulted in marked quantitative differences and alterations in the genome landscape between chimpanzee and human. Almost all of the most extreme differences relate to changes in chromosome structure, including the emergence of African great ape subterminal heterochromatin. Nevertheless, base per base, large segmental duplication events have had a greater impact (2.7%) in altering the genomic landscape of these two species than single-base-pair substitution (1.2%).     

簸箕柳SPL基因家族分析

【目的】确定SPL基因家族在不同物种之间的选择性保留和丢失情况,为后续研究被子植物花发育提供参考。【方法】通过在拟南芥(Arabidopsis thaliana)、毛果杨(Populus trichocarpa)、簸箕柳(Salix suchowensis)、葡萄(Vitis vinifera)、番木瓜(Carica papaya)、水稻(Oryza sativa)6种被子植物基因组中查找SPL结构域,寻找6个物种的SPL同源序列。对所找到的SPL序列进行BLASTN比对鉴定同源基因类型。使用自编Perl脚本结合KaKs_Calculator计算SPL同源基因的非同义突变(K_a)以及同义突变(K_s)值,采用共线性分析确定该基因家族的复制和扩张方式。【结果】在6种被子植物基因组中,共发现120个SPL基因。根据种内和种间旁系同源、直系同源基因以及这些同源基因选择压的计算显示:杨柳科SPL同源基因最多,共有旁系同源基因24对,直系同源基因50对; 番木瓜没有旁系同源基因。6个物种中,木本植物比草本植物直系同源基因更多,双子叶植物比单子叶植物直系同源基因更多; 所有旁系同源和直系同源基因的K_a/K_s值均小于1。系统发育树的分析结果与基因同源性分析基本吻合,证明了这两种分析方法具有较高的可靠性。此次研究选取了簸箕柳同一植株上开花和不开花的枝条进行了转录组测序分析,差异表达分析发现了1个SPL基因(willow_GLEAN_10025160)在两种枝条的转录组中表达差异显著(P≤0.01),其在开花枝条中的表达量显著高于未开花枝条,该基因被选为SPL基因家族中参与簸箕柳开花调控的候选基因。【结论】通过对6个物种SPL基因家族的分析,发现6个物种中所有直系同源和旁系同源基因都经历了纯化选择(K_a/K_s<1),基因功能保守。这6个物种除了经历过全基因组复制事件,还发生过大规模的基因丢失或者通过其他方式产生的基因扩张,阐明了它们在进化历史上的复制事件及SPL基因在不同物种中的选择性保留与丢失情况,为进一步研究其在调控簸箕柳开花中的作用提供了有力证据。     

Maintenance of functional equivalence during paralogous Hox gene evolution

Biological diversity is driven mainly by gene duplication followed by mutation and selection. This divergence in either regulatory or protein-coding sequences can result in quite different biological functions for even closely related genes. This concept is exemplified by the mammalian Hox gene complex, a group of 39 genes which are located on 4 linkage groups, dispersed on 4 chromosomes. The evolution of this complex began with amplification in cis of a primordial Hox gene to produce 13 members, followed by duplications in trans of much of the entire unit. As a consequence, Hox genes that occupy the same relative position along the 5' to 3' chromosomal coordinate (trans-paralogous genes) share more similarity in sequence and expression pattern than do adjacent Hox genes on the same chromosome. Studies in mice indicate that although individual family members may have unique biological roles, they also share overlapping functions with their paralogues. Here we show that the proteins encoded by the paralogous genes, Hoxa3 and Hoxd3, can carry out identical biological functions, and that the different roles attributed to these genes are the result of quantitative modulations in gene expression.     

Minimal ProtoHox cluster inferred from bilaterian and cnidarian Hox complements

Bilaterian animals have a Hox gene cluster essential for patterning the main body axis, and a ParaHox gene cluster. Comparison of Hox and ParaHox genes has led workers to postulate that both clusters originated from the duplication of an ancient cluster named ProtoHox, which contained up to four genes with at least the precursors of anterior and posterior Hox/ParaHox genes. However, the way in which genes diversified within the ProtoHox, Hox and ParaHox clusters remains unclear because no systematic study of non-bilaterian animals exists. Here we characterize the full Hox/ParaHox gene complements and genomic organization in two cnidarian species (Nematostella vectensis and Hydra magnipapillata), and suggest a ProtoHox cluster simpler than originally thought on the basis of three arguments. First, both species possess bilaterian-like anterior Hox genes, but their non-anterior genes do not appear as counterparts of either bilaterian central or posterior genes; second, two clustered ParaHox genes, Gsx and a gene related to Xlox and Cdx, are found in Nematostella vectensis; and third, we do not find clear phylogenetic support for a common origin of bilaterian Cdx and posterior genes, which might therefore have appeared after the ProtoHox cluster duplication. Consequently, the ProtoHox cluster might have consisted of only two anterior genes. Non-anterior genes could have appeared independently in the Hox and ParaHox clusters, possibly after the separation of bilaterians and cnidarians.     

The grapevine genome sequence suggests ancestral hexaploidization in major angiosperm phyla

The analysis of the first plant genomes provided unexpected evidence for genome duplication events in species that had previously been considered as true diploids on the basis of their genetics. These polyploidization events may have had important consequences in plant evolution, in particular for species radiation and adaptation and for the modulation of functional capacities. Here we report a high-quality draft of the genome sequence of grapevine (Vitis vinifera) obtained from a highly homozygous genotype. The draft sequence of the grapevine genome is the fourth one produced so far for flowering plants, the second for a woody species and the first for a fruit crop (cultivated for both fruit and beverage). Grapevine was selected because of its important place in the cultural heritage of humanity beginning during the Neolithic period. Several large expansions of gene families with roles in aromatic features are observed. The grapevine genome has not undergone recent genome duplication, thus enabling the discovery of ancestral traits and features of the genetic organization of flowering plants. This analysis reveals the contribution of three ancestral genomes to the grapevine haploid content. This ancestral arrangement is common to many dicotyledonous plants but is absent from the genome of rice, which is a monocotyledon. Furthermore, we explain the chronology of previously described whole-genome duplication events in the evolution of flowering plants.