Towards a critique of Critical Systems Thinking within a foucauldian framework: A “demystification process” or an “instrumental use” of Critical Theory

Critical Systems Thinking is an approach which aims at providing a coherent platform to guide systems practitioners through the numerous systems paradigms and systems methodologies currently available. However, it claims not only that it can provide an efficient way for choosing the appropriate methodology based on proper understanding of their strengths and weaknesses, but also that it is grounded within a commitment to critique, complementarism, and emancipation. Furthermore, it has claimed to be deeply rooted in the ideas of Habermas and Foucault. Considering recent research in Foucault's philosophy, this paper attempts to provide of CST a critical examination which can be extended to other areas of the management and systems sciences. In the context of this examination, the conclusion has been reached that CST has at least two options. The first is to redefine itself as a demystification process (of cherished concepts such as emancipation, complementarism, intervention and so on), if it wants to remain somehow ‘inspired’ by Critical Theory. The second one is to redefine its ‘critical’ claims so as to become aligned with managerial activities such as business consultancy and intervention, openly acknowledging an application of Critical Theory that is instrumental, if such an influence indeed exists.     

Total systems intervention and human inquiry: The search for a common ground

Total Systems Intervention (TSI) is an approach to intervening in problem situations which has much to offer where complex interacting issues need to be addressed by the complementary use of intervention methodologies. That such an approach has much in common with Action Research (AR) has been recognized, with much recent effort being devoted to the relationship between AR and Critical Systems Thinking (CST), the theoretical endeavor underpinning TSI. This paper further develops this line of debate and relates AR or Human Inquiry (HI) more directly to TSI, using an information systems intervention to enhance the study. The outcome is a demonstration of how TSI implicitly uses techniques informed from the field of Action Research, and how a more thorough synthesis of HI with TSI might serve to improve the overall intervention process.     

Groundwork of a Sartrean Input Toward Informing Some Concerns of Critical Systems Thinking

Research under way by this author seeks to return to von Bertalanffy's philosophical deliberations believing that they can provide an input which is as yet untapped and which provides a journey through phenomenological and existential ideas. The motivation for the research stems from three interlinked areas. First, in examining the beginnings of Critical Systems Thinking, a justification is found for its embrace of diverse inputs which began with Critical Theory and Habermas. A main conclusion is that any diversity must have one thing in common: it must not violate systemicity. This leads to an examination of the initial Habermasian incorporation, where one finds that a question which directly leads Critical Systems Thinking to consider critical awareness, social awareness, and human emancipation remains unanswered. An answer is provided, but this answer comes from an as yet untapped source in the field, the work of Jean-Paul Sartre. The appearance of Sartre in providing what is deemed to be an important answer begs the further question of whether he can inform Critical Systems Thinking without violating systemicity. A return to von Bertalanffy, in the third section, shows that no such violation is pending since a reading of his philosophical deliberations paves the way for an input from Sartre, first through the phenomenological tradition and then through its existential variant. In the process, the systemic nature of both Sartre's approach and ethical concerns unfolds.     

Action research and critical systems thinking: Two icons carved out of the same log?

My intention in this paper is to make sense of the relationship between Action Research (AR) and Critical Systems Thinking (CST). On the surface, the two strands of thinking do not seem to have much in common. There is hardly any common reference in texts written within each tradition. Deeper down, however, there may be common concerns. The point of departure is to focus on how professionals interact with real-world problems and to clarify the underlying values for professional practice. To facilitate a discussion on the relationship between AR and CST, a frame of reference is developed based on analyzing the meaning construction process. Based on this platform, the relationship among theory, practice, and people shapes the ground for the discussion. Within this discussion three questions are raised: (1) Is the theory understood by the people and based on their interests? (2) Are the research questions relevant for the people? and (3) Are people emancipated to act in their own interests? The relationship between AR and CST can be examined based on these three questions. In concluding, I argue for the potential of a mutual and fruitful dialogue between AR and CST.     

Intersections of Critical Systems Thinking and Community Based Participatory Research: A Learning Organization Example with the Autistic Community

Critical systems thinking (CST) and community based participatory research (CBPR) are distinct approaches to inquiry which share a primary commitment to holism and human emancipation, as well as common grounding in critical theory and emancipatory and pragmatic philosophy. This paper explores their intersections and complements on a historical, philosophical, and theoretical level, and then proposes a hybrid approach achieved by applying CBPR’s principles and considerations for operationalizing emancipatory practice to traditional systems thinking frameworks and practices. This hybrid approach is illustrated in practice with examples drawn from of the implementation of the learning organization model in an action research setting with the Autistic community. Our experience of being able to actively attend to, and continuously equalize, power relations within an organizational framework that otherwise has great potential for reinforcing power inequity suggests CBPR’s principles and considerations for operationalizing emancipatory practice could be useful in CST settings, and CST’s vocabulary, methods, and clarity around systems thinking concepts could be valuable to CBPR practitioners.     

Designing a Management System for a Rural Community Development Organization Using a Systemic Action Research Process

This paper describes the first phase, 'finding out', of a systemic participatory action research intervention in the management systems of a rural community development organization in the KwaZulu-Natal province of South Africa. The aims of the intervention were to (a) improve the management system of this organization, and (b) evaluate the usefulness of particular systems methodologies for the improvement of management systems of organizations involved in community development in under-resourced rural contexts. The second phase, "implementation," needs to be completed and thoroughly evaluated before any final conclusions can be drawn about the suitability of the chosen systems framework for Third World type rural contexts. However, the second phase is, at the time of writing, underway and all indications are that an interpretive ('Soft') Systems Methodology, combined with insights from a more functionalist ('hard') approach (with methods chosen through a Critical Systems Thinking framework) holds much promise for participatory systemic interventions in these contexts.     

Critical systems thinking,paradigms, and the modelling space

Inquirers explore situations from their ownWeltanschauung and model them through a paradigm. A relationship between Weltanschauung and the paradigm is explored, as is that between paradigms and situations. Within the context of Critical Systems Thinking, exploration of how paradigms and their coordination, and thus the methodologies that they entertain, can be used within the action of complementarism.     

The Ontological Constitution of Bounding-Judging in the Phenomenological Epistemology of von Bertalanffy's General System Theory

An analysis of the current presentation of boundary judgments in the Critical Systems literature highlights a general result: that the activity of bounding has been, implicitly or explicitly, considered as an epistemological issue. By arguing that knowledge is not produced singularly by bounding, the paper informs this general result. This, in turn, informs other results, which have emerged in current understanding. In particular, the paper argues (a) the reason why knowledge indeed never attains the status of "objective or right" knowledge, (b) how critique is dependent on some positing of knowledge, and (c) the exact place where critique is actioned. von Bertalanffy's attempted systems epistemology is considered at length because it explains and informs the epistemological conclusions seen to have been drawn in the current Critical Systems literature. von Bertalanffy's attempt requires the support of Husserlian phenomenology, especially Sartre's understanding of it. This requires an in-depth discussion of the phenomenological understanding of consciousness. Since the conclusions stem from von Bertalanffy, the paper reconsiders the status of General System Theory in Critical Systems Thinking.     

Emancipation and truth in critical systems methodologies

This paper deals with the need for stakeholders to participate actively in organizations, so that systems methodologies can be applied in a critical fashion with the objective of arousing the emancipatory interest. It discusses the meaning of emancipation in the labor movement tradition and the emergence of the apathy of working people toward it. Critical Systems Thinking is obliged to face this apathy in its attempt to motivate the emancipatory interest.     

The Relevance of Systems Thinking in the Quest for Multifinal Social Enterprises

Human deprivation and suffering around the world are increasing despite the efforts of traditional aid-based approaches focused on alleviating poverty and improving the quality of life for marginalized communities. There is ample evidence that billions of dollars in aid money have been expended on development projects that are fundamentally unsustainable. On the other hand, social enterprises, which improve lives and livelihoods through practical market-based approaches, are growing in number. Systems Thinking can be especially helpful in navigating the complexity and chaos inherent in social ventures in developing communities. Lack of clarity in the roles, responsibilities, and returns for the various stakeholders epitomizes this chaos and is a major contributor to the failure of such projects. By employing Systems Thinking, entrepreneurs can establish accountability mechanisms, ensure equity for all stakeholders, and facilitate system sustainability. Though much research exists on both Systems Thinking and social enterprise, few sources discuss how Systems Thinking can be practically applied to conceptualize, build, and sustain social enterprises in an easy-to-understand manner. This paper synthesizes definitions of the tenets of Systems Thinking including interdependence, holism, multifinality, equifinality, differentiation, regulation, abstraction, and leverage points. The relevance of each of these tenets to social entrepreneurship is described, and further reinforced, with examples. A practical understanding of these tenets can empower entrepreneurs as they navigate chaotic environments in the quest for social enterprises that create win–win situations for all stakeholders.     

Ethical skill development as an imperative for emancipatory practice

Total Systems Intervention (TSI) as a form of Critical Systems Thinking has been subject to criticism concerning the actual application of its emancipatory commitment. The emancipatory potentials of TSI or other systems-oriented change efforts may possibly be improved through their linkage to employee ethical skill development. Acknowledging a “strategic twist” in consulting efforts to encourage greater emancipatory practice and a more communicative ethic, an agenda for consultants is suggested to provide incremental emancipatory potentials for organizations with many apparently coercive characteristics.     

Pyramids or Silos: Alternative Representations of the Systems Thinking Paradigms

This paper is written from the perspective of a practitioner-researcher coming to terms with methodologically or theoretically pluralist practice. Common depictions of the relationship between the hard and soft paradigms are discussed, including the influence of the problem of paradigmatic incommensurability. The consequences of different ways in which this relationship is depicted are examined, in light of various perspectives on the relationship of Critical Systems Thinking to these paradigms. Alternative models of this relationship are provided, followed by discussion of how these models can be extended to combinations of other paradigms in different contexts.     

Systems thinking in British Telecom Training: A brief account

This paper describes how British Telecom's Training Department has been using Systems Thinking over the last few years and has started introducing Systems concepts and methodologies to a wider audience of operational managers within. The paper explores some of the reasons for British Telecom to adopt Systems Thinking and describes the application of Soft Systems Methodology (SSM) to a particular project within Training Department. The paper also describes the design and delivery of the Introduction to Systems Thinking course which is now part of British Telecom's core program of management training.     

Critical Systems Thinking and “new social movements”: A perspective from the theory of communicative action

The purpose of this paper is to review recent developments in critical theory on the political function of the public sphere and the emancipatory potential of new social movements. This work is shown to be relevant to systemic decisions made under conditions of public conflict. Normative models for the self-understanding of actors engaged in self-limiting emancipatory struggles in modern societies are reviewed and related to the concerns of Critical Systems Thinking.     

The Ontological Status of Critique

Two previous papers by the author are summarized in order to provide the context for the arguments and results of the present paper. The author's previous research has identified the exact place where critique is epistemologically actioned and this enables the present paper to argue for the attribution of ontological status to critique. Since it is commonly acknowledged that a lack of critique results in dogmatism or bounded rationality, these latter two are investigated—in greater depth than previously considered in the literature—and, though they are shown to be inescapable, they provide a route toward a fundamental principle which systemically brings together ontological, epistemological, ethical, and emancipatory concerns. The principle can be stated as follows: One is more or less emancipated depending upon the extent to which one is aware of critique-bounded emancipation as an ontological necessity and thus to the degree to which one ceases to attempt escaping from practical critique into the realms of dogmatic emancipation and rationally bounded emancipation. The paper provides accurate definitions of critique and emancipation, showing that one cannot be considered without the other, thus framing the manner in which further discussion of these two intimately related issues can be continued. In keeping with the author's previous published research, the relevance of von Bertalanffy's deliberations to Critical Systems Thinking, as well as Sartre's philosophy to systems thinking in general, is upheld.     

Human Development in Saudi Education: a Critical Systemic Approach

This paper is drawn from PhD research funded by the Saudi government on the policy and governance of Saudi schools (Algraini 2017. A critical systemic approach to human development in education: a case study of the Ministry of Education in Saudi Arabia). The aim of this article is to address human development challenges using the Critical Systems Heuristics approach. The results show that the central policy framework limits the opportunity for teachers and learners to contribute to shaping the curriculum and the process for human development. The Saudi Ministry of Education needs to: a) develop policy that takes into account the structure and the processes that shape education outcomes and b) to represent the voices of service users and service providers who have different and overlapping views.     

Systems Thinking and Scenario Planning: Application in the Clothing Sector

Industrial sectors that operate in uncertain environments - with demand variability, product seasonality and different industrialisation structures - need studies that enable identification and forecast trends. Therefore, the development of competitiveness extends beyond a company’s individual performance. Collective action, whether toward consumer markets, supplier markets, competitors and substitutes, can reinforce or help reformulate the current practices of an organisation, besides providing better results in the development of strategies and competitive positioning. Thus, clothing, the sector addressed in this work, is characterised by a long, fragmented, heterogeneous production chain, the competitiveness of which is linked to product differentiation. Therefore, the use of systemic approaches to study this sector is effective. In this sense, this research aims at adapting Systems Thinking and Scenario Planning (STSP) so that it supports the development and planning process in a given sector. Thus, this research applies STSP adapted to an analysis of the clothing sector in the northern region of Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil. As a result, in academic terms, this research proposed and validated a method for analysing industrial sectors of the clothing industry. In the sectoral context, this research identified elements that leverage the sector’s competitiveness, besides generating knowledge and learning aimed at strengthening the sectoral structure identified, and fostering the formation of a new clothing cluster.     

The Application of Critical Systems Thinking to Enhance the Effectiveness of a University Information System

Faced with the common problem of dissatisfaction with the outcome of investments in information systems (IS), the IS community has long sought ways to improve information systems development (ISD). This paper reports on action research (AR) that sought to improve the effectiveness a UK university’s student record system (SRS), which had exhibited persistent problems. Critical systems thinking (CST) is seen to have value for ISD and was used to guide the AR. In the first stage of this research, the issues with the initial design of the SRS were identified to have largely resulted from insufficient elicitation of the underlying assumptions about, and perspectives on, complex organisational issues. The second stage centred on examining the situation from an “ought” perspective analysing what should be done and how, in order to develop creative solutions to the problems uncovered. The third stage involved recommending solutions to address the problems identified in order to improve the effectiveness of the SRS. Overall, the AR indicates that CST enables those involved to view the design and implementation of the SRS as a holistic system, critically reflect upon broad and complex human, technological and organisational issues from different perspectives, and thereby identify creative solutions. The main contribution of this research is in generating support for an ISD intervention guided by CST. The results of, and the understanding developed from, this intervention are likely to be relevant to the problems that frequently occur in similar situations.     

A typology of power supporting intervention

A typology of power is presented. The typology guides researchers/practitioners to the main concerns currently debated about power and its abuses. Possible ways of managing organisational issues explicitly dealing with power and abuses are explored. The typology forms threearenas of discourse to make this possible: structuralism, intersubjective decision making, and might-right management. Structuralism deals with issues surrounding organisational design and process design. Intersubjective decision making deals with issues surrounding processes of debate. Might-right management deals with issues surrounding disempowering social practices that impact on designing and debating. The arenas of discourse suggest ways, that differ, of understanding and managing a range of issues related to the operation of power. This is part of a wider project called Diversity Management, which in turn is part of Critical Systems Thinking.     

Expanding the framework for monitor and control in Soft Systems Methodology

Soft Systems Methodology (SSM) has been criticized for its interpretivistic stance by, among others, Critical systems thinkers. By locating problems inherent in the techniques of SSM, this paper proposes an expanded theoretical framework, concerning measure of performance in the conceptual models. The expansion is based on the theories behind Multi-Modal Methodology and has resulted in a new model of performance indicators for the design.