Genetic imprinting suggested by maternal heterodisomy in nondeletion Prader-Willi syndrome

Prader-Willi syndrome (PWS) is the most common form of dysmorphic genetic obesity associated with mental retardation. About 60% of cases have a cytological deletion of chromosome 15q11q13 (refs 2, 3). These deletions occur de novo exclusively on the paternal chromosome. By contrast, Angelman syndrome (AS) is a very different clinical disorder and is also associated with deletions of region 15q11q13 (refs 6-8), indistinguishable from those in PWS except that they occur de novo on the maternal chromosome. The parental origin of the affected chromosomes 15 in these disorders could, therefore, be a contributory factor in determining their clinical phenotypes. We have now used cloned DNA markers specific for the 15q11q13 subregion to determine the parental origin of chromosome 15 in PWS individuals not having cytogenetic deletions; these individuals account for almost all of the remaining 40% of PWS cases. Probands in two families displayed maternal uniparental disomy for chromosome 15q11q13. This is the first demonstration that maternal heterodisomy--the presence of two different chromosome 15s derived from the mother--can be associated with a human genetic disease. The absence of a paternal contribution of genes in region 15q11q13, as found in PWS deletion cases, rather than a mutation in a specific gene(s) in this region may result in expression of the clinical phenotype. Thus, we conclude that a gene or genes in region 15q11q13 must be inherited from each parent for normal human development.     

Delayed activation of the paternal genome during seed development

Little is known about the timing of the maternal-to-zygotic transition during seed development in flowering plants. Because plant embryos can develop from somatic cells or microspores, maternal contributions are not considered to be crucial in early embryogensis. Early-acting embryo-lethal mutants in Arabidopsis, including emb30/gnom which affects the first zygotic division, have fuelled the perception that both maternal and paternal genomes are active immediately after fertilization. Here we show that none of the paternally inherited alleles of 20 loci that we tested is expressed during early seed development in Arabidopsis. For genes that are expressed at later stages, the paternally inherited allele becomes active three to four days after fertilization. The genes that we tested are involved in various processes and distributed throughout the genome, indicating that most, if not all, of the paternal genome may be initially silenced. Our findings are corroborated by genetic studies showing that emb30/gnom has a maternal-effect phenotype that is paternally rescuable in addition to its zygotic lethality. Thus, contrary to previous interpretations, early embryo and endosperm development are mainly under maternal control.     

Methylation of a CTCF-dependent boundary controls imprinted expression of the Igf2 gene

The expression of the insulin-like growth factor 2 (Igf2) and H19 genes is imprinted. Although these neighbouring genes share an enhancer, H19 is expressed only from the maternal allele, and Igf2 only from the paternally inherited allele. A region of paternal-specific methylation upstream of H19 appears to be the site of an epigenetic mark that is required for the imprinting of these genes. A deletion within this region results in loss of imprinting of both H19 and Igf2 (ref. 5). Here we show that this methylated region contains an element that blocks enhancer activity. The activity of this element is dependent upon the vertebrate enhancer-blocking protein CTCF. Methylation of CpGs within the CTCF-binding sites eliminates binding of CTCF in vitro, and deletion of these sites results in loss of enhancer-blocking activity in vivo, thereby allowing gene expression. This CTCF-dependent enhancer-blocking element acts as an insulator. We suggest that it controls imprinting of Igf2. The activity of this insulator is restricted to the maternal allele by specific DNA methylation of the paternal allele. Our results reveal that DNA methylation can control gene expression by modulating enhancer access to the gene promoter through regulation of an enhancer boundary.     

Uniparental paternal disomy in a genetic cancer-predisposing syndrome.

The 11p15.5 region of human chromosome 11 seems to contain a locus or loci involved in congenital overgrowth anomalies as well as in the genesis of many tumours associated with the Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome (BWS). Given the unusual differential parental allele involvement in the different aetiological forms of BWS and the loss of maternal alleles in associated tumours, we have now used 11p15.5 markers to determine the parental origin of chromosome 11 in eight sporadic cases of BWS. Probands in three informative families had uniparental paternal disomy for region 11p15.5. Further, an overall greatly increased frequency of homozygosity for several 11p15.5 markers in 21 sporadic BWS patients suggests that isodisomy probably accounts for an even higher proportion of BWS sporadic cases. This demonstrates that uniparental paternal disomy can be associated with a genetic cancer-predisposing syndrome.     

Distinct physiological and behavioural functions for parental alleles of imprinted Grb10

Imprinted genes, defined by their preferential expression of a single parental allele, represent a subset of the mammalian genome and often have key roles in embryonic development, but also postnatal functions including energy homeostasis and behaviour. When the two parental alleles are unequally represented within a social group (when there is sex bias in dispersal and/or variance in reproductive success), imprinted genes may evolve to modulate social behaviour, although so far no such instance is known. Predominantly expressed from the maternal allele during embryogenesis, Grb10 encodes an intracellular adaptor protein that can interact with several receptor tyrosine kinases and downstream signalling molecules. Here we demonstrate that within the brain Grb10 is expressed from the paternal allele from fetal life into adulthood and that ablation of this expression engenders increased social dominance specifically among other aspects of social behaviour, a finding supported by the observed increase in allogrooming by paternal Grb10-deficient animals. Grb10 is, therefore, the first example of an imprinted gene that regulates social behaviour. It is also currently alone in exhibiting imprinted expression from each of the parental alleles in a tissue-specific manner, as loss of the peripherally expressed maternal allele leads to significant fetal and placental overgrowth. Thus Grb10 is, so far, a unique imprinted gene, able to influence distinct physiological processes, fetal growth and adult behaviour, owing to actions of the two parental alleles in different tissues.     

Interleukin-1beta-mediated induction of Cox-2 in the CNS contributes to inflammatory pain hypersensitivity

Inflammation causes the induction of cyclooxygenase-2 (Cox-2), leading to the release of prostanoids, which sensitize peripheral nociceptor terminals and produce localized pain hypersensitivity. Peripheral inflammation also generates pain hypersensitivity in neighbouring uninjured tissue (secondary hyperalgesia), because of increased neuronal excitability in the spinal cord (central sensitization), and a syndrome comprising diffuse muscle and joint pain, fever, lethargy and anorexia. Here we show that Cox-2 may be involved in these central nervous system (CNS) responses, by finding a widespread induction of Cox-2 expression in spinal cord neurons and in other regions of the CNS, elevating prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) levels in the cerebrospinal fluid. The major inducer of central Cox-2 upregulation is interleukin-1beta in the CNS, and as basal phospholipase A2 activity in the CNS does not change with peripheral inflammation, Cox-2 levels must regulate central prostanoid production. Intraspinal administration of an interleukin-converting enzyme or Cox-2 inhibitor decreases inflammation-induced central PGE2 levels and mechanical hyperalgesia. Thus, preventing central prostanoid production by inhibiting the interleukin-1beta-mediated induction of Cox-2 in neurons or by inhibiting central Cox-2 activity reduces centrally generated inflammatory pain hypersensitivity.     

Motor neuron columnar fate imposed by sequential phases of Hox-c activity

The organization of neurons into columns is a prominent feature of central nervous system structure and function. In many regions of the central nervous system the grouping of neurons into columns links cell-body position to axonal trajectory, thus contributing to the establishment of topographic neural maps. This link is prominent in the developing spinal cord, where columnar sets of motor neurons innervate distinct targets in the periphery. We show here that sequential phases of Hox-c protein expression and activity control the columnar differentiation of spinal motor neurons. Hox expression in neural progenitors is established by graded fibroblast growth factor signalling and translated into a distinct motor neuron Hox pattern. Motor neuron columnar fate then emerges through cell autonomous repressor and activator functions of Hox proteins. Hox proteins also direct the expression of genes that establish motor topographic projections, thus implicating Hox proteins as critical determinants of spinal motor neuron identity and organization.     

大鼠坐骨神经切断后经皮低频高强度电刺激相应脊髓节段中GAP-43表达的变化

目的探讨成年Wister大鼠在坐骨神经切断后GAP-43于相应脊髓节段前角运动神经元内的表达变化.方法选取健康成年雄性Wister大鼠60只,将坐骨神经切断,随机分为实验组和对照组,实验组给予经皮低频高强度电刺激,分别于术后1,2,4,8,12,16周处死,取其L4~L6脊髓,利用免疫组织化学技术检测GAP-43在相应脊髓节段中的表达变化,并利用影像分析系统进行统计学分析.结果对照组:1周时前角细胞胞体内GAP-43有明显表达,4周时达到高峰,5~8周时逐渐下调,9~16周时GAP-43在前角细胞胞体内中仍有少量表达,并呈弱阳性.实验组:1周时前角细胞胞体内GAP-43有明显表达,2周时达到高峰,且在4~16周时在神经元中仍有表达,并呈阳性.结论坐骨神经切断可导致成年大鼠相应脊髓节段中前角运动神经元GAP-43表达明显增加,可证明在周围神经损伤后神经元的再生能力增强,但时效很短.而给予低频高强度电刺激疗法后,GAP-43的表达在时长和量上都有明显增加.     

一氧化氮合酶在猕猴中枢神经系统中的表达

研究神经元型一氧化氮合酶(NOS1)在灵长类动物中枢神经系统中的表达．方法：采用免疫组织化学技术，观察了一氧化氮合酶在正常猕猴脑和脊髓中的表达．结果表明NOS1阳性神经元分布于中枢神经系统的广泛区域，包括大脑皮质、海马、齿状回、尾壳核、纹状体、小脑皮质、脊髓前角、后角和中央灰质与中枢神经系统的诸多功能有关．     

P2X4 receptors induced in spinal microglia gate tactile allodynia after nerve injury

Pain after nerve damage is an expression of pathological operation of the nervous system, one hallmark of which is tactile allodynia-pain hypersensitivity evoked by innocuous stimuli. Effective therapy for this pain is lacking, and the underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. Here we report that pharmacological blockade of spinal P2X4 receptors (P2X4Rs), a subtype of ionotropic ATP receptor, reversed tactile allodynia caused by peripheral nerve injury without affecting acute pain behaviours in naive animals. After nerve injury, P2X4R expression increased strikingly in the ipsilateral spinal cord, and P2X4Rs were induced in hyperactive microglia but not in neurons or astrocytes. Intraspinal administration of P2X4R antisense oligodeoxynucleotide decreased the induction of P2X4Rs and suppressed tactile allodynia after nerve injury. Conversely, intraspinal administration of microglia in which P2X4Rs had been induced and stimulated, produced tactile allodynia in naive rats. Taken together, our results demonstrate that activation of P2X4Rs in hyperactive microglia is necessary for tactile allodynia after nerve injury and is sufficient to produce tactile allodynia in normal animals. Thus, blocking P2X4Rs in microglia might be a new therapeutic strategy for pain induced by nerve injury.     

A global disorder of imprinting in the human female germ line

Imprinted genes are expressed differently depending on whether they are carried by a chromosome of maternal or paternal origin. Correct imprinting is established by germline-specific modifications; failure of this process underlies several inherited human syndromes. All these imprinting control defects are cis-acting, disrupting establishment or maintenance of allele-specific epigenetic modifications across one contiguous segment of the genome. In contrast, we report here an inherited global imprinting defect. This recessive maternal-effect mutation disrupts the specification of imprints at multiple, non-contiguous loci, with the result that genes normally carrying a maternal methylation imprint assume a paternal epigenetic pattern on the maternal allele. The resulting conception is phenotypically indistinguishable from an androgenetic complete hydatidiform mole, in which abnormal extra-embryonic tissue proliferates while development of the embryo is absent or nearly so. This disorder offers a genetic route to the identification of trans-acting oocyte factors that mediate maternal imprint establishment.     

Essential role for de novo DNA methyltransferase Dnmt3a in paternal and maternal imprinting

Imprinted genes are epigenetically marked during gametogenesis so that they are exclusively expressed from either the paternal or the maternal allele in offspring. Imprinting prevents parthenogenesis in mammals and is often disrupted in congenital malformation syndromes, tumours and cloned animals. Although de novo DNA methyltransferases of the Dnmt3 family are implicated in maternal imprinting, the lethality of Dnmt3a and Dnmt3b knockout mice has precluded further studies. We here report the disruption of Dnmt3a and Dnmt3b in germ cells, with their preservation in somatic cells, by conditional knockout technology. Offspring from Dnmt3a conditional mutant females die in utero and lack methylation and allele-specific expression at all maternally imprinted loci examined. Dnmt3a conditional mutant males show impaired spermatogenesis and lack methylation at two of three paternally imprinted loci examined in spermatogonia. By contrast, Dnmt3b conditional mutants and their offspring show no apparent phenotype. The phenotype of Dnmt3a conditional mutants is indistinguishable from that of Dnmt3L knockout mice, except for the discrepancy in methylation at one locus. These results indicate that both Dnmt3a and Dnmt3L are required for methylation of most imprinted loci in germ cells, but also suggest the involvement of other factors.     

利用反义RNA探索外源基因丢失的分子机理

利用反义ＲＮＡ技术研究了调控ＰＡＲＰ酶基因的表达对外源基因整合稳定性的影响。将ＰＡＲＰ基因ｃＤＮＡ的部分序列反向插入到真核表达载体ｐＳＭＧ中,将重组质粒分别导入携带有外源基因的细胞中,地塞米松诱导反义ＰＡＲＰ基因的表达后,进行Ｓｏｕｔｈｅｒｎ杂交检测。结果表明,外源基因仍保留在基因组中,这意味着外源基因的丢失并不是由于单一ＰＡＲＰ酶活性降低所致。     

Trans-synaptic shift in anion gradient in spinal lamina I neurons as a mechanism of neuropathic pain

Modern pain-control theory predicts that a loss of inhibition (disinhibition) in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord is a crucial substrate for chronic pain syndromes. However, the nature of the mechanisms that underlie such disinhibition has remained controversial. Here we present evidence for a novel mechanism of disinhibition following peripheral nerve injury. It involves a trans-synaptic reduction in the expression of the potassium-chloride exporter KCC2, and the consequent disruption of anion homeostasis in neurons of lamina I of the superficial dorsal horn, one of the main spinal nociceptive output pathways. In our experiments, the resulting shift in the transmembrane anion gradient caused normally inhibitory anionic synaptic currents to be excitatory, substantially driving up the net excitability of lamina I neurons. Local blockade or knock-down of the spinal KCC2 exporter in intact rats markedly reduced the nociceptive threshold, confirming that the reported disruption of anion homeostasis in lamina I neurons was sufficient to cause neuropathic pain.     

单开门椎管扩大术治疗颈髓压迫症疗效观察

目的：通过单开门椎管扩大成形术的手术治疗，探讨颈椎管狭窄症及颈髓压迫症的病因及治疗方法。方法：对17例颈髓压迫症患进行单开门颈椎管扩大成形术。经过6月—4a的随访，对术中术后所见进行回顾性研究和探讨。结果：本组17例压迫症经过6月-4a的随访，优10例，良5例，尚可2例，平均优良率88．2％。结论：单开门颈椎管扩大成形术可以扩大长段椎管，不但直接解除脊髓后方的压迫，由于脊髓的向后移动，来自前方的压迫也可以同时得到解除，进而恢复脊髓的血循环，改善脊髓的功能，并且减少了颈椎后部结构的损伤，术后颈髓压迫症恢复快，疗效好。