Science as Systemic Intervention: Some Implications of Systems Thinking and Complexity for the Philosophy of Science

This paper sidesteps the usual starting points for debate about complexity and the philosophy of science, which tend to assume that science is primarily about observation. Instead, the starting point is intervention, defined as purposeful action by an agent to create change. While some authors suggest that intervention and observation are opposites, it is argued here that observation (as undertaken in science) should be viewed as just one type of intervention. We should therefore welcome scientific techniques of observation into a pluralistic set of intervention methods, alongside methods for exploring values, reflecting on subjective understandings, planning future activities, etc. However, there is a need to explicitly counter a possible pernicious interpretation of this argument: intervention could (erroneously) be viewed as flawlessly preplanned change based on accurate predictions of the consequences of action. This is the mechanistic worldview that systems thinking and complexity science seek to challenge. Therefore, having redefined scientific observation as intervention, the paper revisits insights from systems thinking and complexity to propose a methodology of systemic intervention. Some brief reflections are then provided on the wider social implications of this methodology.     

创新思维的旋转动力学理论框架

提出创新思维的旋转动力学理论框架，包括理论的矛盾和不变性两个基本原理以及场模型推理规则，进而以微分拓扑为数学工具，构造了理论框架，包括思维时空、思维拓扑、思维流形、思维代数和思维动力系统，通过它们可推演出思维的旋转性、边界性和弯曲性等性质，最后讨论了旋转动力学理论的应用法则和实例。     

Repositing Thinking for Future Social Systems Design: In Tribute to Bela H. Banathy and His Inspiration of the Fuschl Conversations

Contemporary systems activity can be divided into that stressing feasible and practical short-term measures, and that which is more ideal-aware, focussed on mid-longer term futures, and typically involving on-going community or social systems design. The paper highlights the key differences in approach, but then invites closer collaboration in the cause of the possible contribution that systems thinking could make for a longer term future, with Y3K (Year 3000) as a metaphor for this. This analysis, which derives from work undertaken at Asilomar 1995 and Fuschl conversations in 2000 and 2002, finds that contemporary social system design, which is driven by western culture and is action-oriented, needs adaptation before it could contribute to greater future global harmony. A truly comprehensive systems design process must accommodate a wide range of possible parameters in terms of culture, and appreciation of time and progress. An emerging paradigm as basis for thinking and engaging in social systems design work of the future is offered, which also has relevance to general systems practice.     

系统方法论研究的现状分析与展望

对目前系统方法论的研究进行分类：硬系统方法论、软系统方法论和批评性系统方法论，分析了不同系统方法的哲学思想、方法步骤及其局限性，探讨了未来系统方法论发展的形式。     

斑杂破碎的世界还是系统层次的世 界简

本文对英美科学哲学中的以南茜·卡特赖特为代表的史坦福学派新经验主义提出批评、剖析和讨论,认为南茜否定基本物理定律的普遍性的观点以72_她的“斑杂破碎的世界”是对一般科学方法论和系统科学方法论的一种d颠覆性的论证。清华大学吴彤教授根据新经验主义提出的《破碎的系统观》是我国系统哲学的一种新见解,也是很有启发性和颠覆性的,无论你赞成还是反对,都值得我们认真研究和讨论。本文认为系统科学的发展实际上已经正面解决了“南茜的质疑”。系统科学哲学研究的关键问题在于采取跨学科研究方法,具体地研究不同类型的系统。当今的主攻方向是要研究复杂系统的普遍规律及其突现行为,并用于解决我国开放改革遇到的各种全局性和局域性问题。世界是有系统的和有规律性的而不是班杂~,r4-和无规的。     

复杂系统的平行控制理论及应用

首先给出了复杂系统的定义,并对复杂系统的研究现状和存在的问题进行了探讨,认识到没有可用来描述复杂系统的足够精确的模型,基于还原论的现有控制理论和方法难以发挥有效作用。在此基础上,提出了应对这类复杂系统问题的平行控制方法,阐述了其ACP思想、基本原理和优势等。同时对控制理论的发展历史做了简要描述,证明平行控制理论的产生是必然的。并阐述了平行控制理论的核心技术。最后介绍了平行控制系统平台及其在乙烯生产和城市交通中的应用,描述了平行控制理论研究和应用实践的前景与展望。     

Fostering Design Culture Through Cultivating the User-Designers' Design Thinking and Systems Thinking

In this paper, the essence of design thinking and systems thinking is reviewed, analyzed, and synthesized. Although there are many valuable schools of systems thinking, I focus on both Banathy's and Senge's since there are design spirit embedded in their systems thinking. I attempt to grasp the spirit of Banathy's systems models and the essence of Senge's systems thinking, incorporating them into my design inquiry. I propose adopting an enlightened, transformative design approach in order to enhance the revolution of the public's inner and outer systems through collaborative design engagement. It is expected that by utilizing the transformative design approach, the public or user–designers could gain the necessary skills to envision their own learning, assume responsibility for designing their own learning environments, and systematically reflect upon their habitual thinking and actions. Ultimately, the user-designers would be able to transform their model-driven or theory-driven approaches to systems application into a cultural approach to the cultivation of systems thinking and design thinking. Indeed, design thinking, as well as contemporary systems thinking are two powerful wings to make us fly in the capacious learning world of the 21st century.     

The origins and nature of critical systems thinking

Critical systems thinking is a relative newcomer in the systems tradition of thought. Nevertheless, it has already made a number of significant contributions to the field and is now developing more quickly than any other part of systems thinking. The paper charts the origins and nature of this evolving, critical systems, body of work. The author's own impressions of its development are first set out. This helps establish that critical systems thinking has come to rest upon five commitments which define its essential character. These commitments are then used to classify the published literature associated with critical systems thinking. The result is a review of the origins and nature of critical systems thinking up to 1990.     

The Relationship of ‘Systems Thinking’ to Action Research

This article investigates the relationship of systems thinking to action research by reviewing the main developments in systems thinking and relating these to action research. There are two main lines of thought in systems thinking that lead to wholly different conceptions about action research. The first (systems thinking) advocates thinking about real social systems that it assumes exist in the world. The second (systemic thinking) supposes only that the social construction of the world is systemic. Greater emphasis is placed on systemic thinking consistent with its greater importance to contemporary action research. The article concludes that systemic thinking when taken to its practical conclusion from a critical perspective offers to action research a somewhat unique liberating praxis. Concern that any liberating praxis could remain hollow is addressed through a certain kind of ‘spiritual’ awareness that is suggested by wholeness.     

Exploration of opportunity costs and consideration exploration of opportunity costs and consideration for future generations: Two lasting contributions to systems thinking

In his numerous writings C. West Churchman has shown how the systems approach can be used to secure improvements in the human condition. Specifically one must think holistically. Two concepts—exploration of opportunity costs and consideration for future generations—underline whole systems thinking. The author argues based on his own experience that these tools of the human intellect are among the most lasting contributions Churchman has made to systems thinking.     

从系统管理到复杂系统管理——写于《系统管理学报》创刊30周年之际

系统性是一切管理活动、理论与问题的基本属性。这样，“系统管理”就是以“系统性”为思维原则的管理范式；当今，我们正面临着人类深刻的时代性变革，这是当今时代最现实的管理复杂性的渊源，这一重大现象被人们称为复杂系统管理时代的到来。复杂系统管理是对复杂系统中一类还原论不可逆性问题的管理范式，钱学森的复杂性思维与复杂系统观是这一复杂系统管理思想的内核与底蕴。人类管理活动正出现从系统管理到复杂系统管理的转移；复杂系统管理已经以其新的内涵成为当今具有学术引领性、前沿性与厚重感的管理新领域。     

The Oblivion of Churchman's Plea for a Systems Approach to World Problems. II. The Rise of the Modern Constellation

This is the second article in a trilogy devoted to inquiring about the historical meaning of the intimate link between a systems approach and world issues, so appropriate for Churchman's initial work on systems. After examining the logical relationship between modern systems thinking and world issues in the first article, in this second article the historical conditions for the formation of modern systems thinking are explored. It is shown how the intimate relationship between the will to systems and the notion of humanity gives full meaning, within the modern constellation, to Churchman's plea for a systems approach to world problems. However, in the light of this historical–ontological inquiry, systems thinking appears as both a propellant for the formation of the new constellation of modernity and a propellant for its destruction.     

Management Information Systems Education from A Systemic Viewpoint

As a proponent of systems thinking and as an MIS educator, I am interested in assuring that systems thinking is (and remains) incorporated into MIS education, not nominally but truly in spirit. This paper reviews some of the highlights of the history of MIS education, with a view toward the identification and preservation of its systemic spirit.     

Teaching Systems Theory/Thinking/Behavior: Systemic Behavior Instead of One-Sidedness: Making Bridges Among Specialists

In the current real life, systems theory is an abstract background of systems thinking,which is a part of systemic behavior. The systemic behavior is the alternative to the currently prevailing one-sidedness that puts all of humankind in danger of self-destruction due to the crucial over-sights(all the way to world wars) that unavoidably result from the current over-specialization(along with crucial, but partial insights), if the specialists fail to practice creative interdisciplinary cooperation.This contribution is a next phase of research after the contributions by Matja? Mulej, Zdenka ?enko and Viktor ?akelj(2017) and by Matja? Mulej, et al.(2013). Although the abstract background and thinking that the systemic behavior applies, are very necessary, theory and thinking are no longer enough for systems science to be a relevant science and practice helping humankind find the way out from the current blind alley and survive as a healthy civilization with a healthy social and natural environment. The suggestion in this contribution therefore reads: Let us systems and cybernetics scientists make/enable the transition to systemic behavior, which applies all the many theories, which are components in the background of systemic behavior in practice, next to each other and/or in synergy. Analysis, i.e., studying per isolated parts is too overlooking and one-sided to be enough. So is teaching on a single one out of several systems theories. Reality is too complex. Teaching is a part of this necessary effort, which must lead to a global peace and survival of humankind of today instead of the current hating the human descendants.     

Tracking the development of the Emery-Trist systems paradigm (ETSP)

This paper is written to accomplish two objectives: first, to introduce the Emery-Trist systems paradigm to the critical systems thinking, a largely neglected and under-utilized paradigm; second using a critical systems thinking framework, to provide a rational justification in an attempt to track the developments in the ETSP so that an extended heuristic map is offered to the scholars interested in the Emery-Trist systems paradigm. Four tracks within ETSP are identified and analyzed to produce a liberation theme that has not previously been articulated. The liberation theme imminent in all four tracks of the paradigm development denotes the value and the promise of the ETSP to the critical systems thinking community as well as to other systems thinkers.An earlier version of this paper was presented at the 34th meeting of the International Society for Systems Science, Portland, Oregon, in July 1990.     

试析联合作战指挥员应有的思维模式

指挥员指挥决策的思维活动是作战指挥的核心内容,科学理论思维模式是科学认识的加工厂,是影响作战决策质量的决定性因素,在很大程度上也就决定了作战指挥的质量和效果。本文首先从科学理论思维模式发展的演变历程来阐述现代科学思维模式的特点;其次分析了科学理论思维模式对作战指挥的决定性作用;进而提出联合作战指挥员应该具有的现代科学思维模式。     

The road to emancipation is through organizational development: A critical evaluation of total systems intervention

Total Systems Intervention (TSI) has been claimed to be the practical face of critical systems thinking. This article reviews the central principles of TSI, describes its theoretical base, and outlines its logic. It is argued that, far from being the way forward for management science, as its supporters claim, TSI is beset by logical and conceptual problems which render its use problematic. More specifically, TSI appears to confuse logical types; its use of metaphors tends to be circular and unnecessary; and its avowed complementarism is insufficiently thought out. It is also argued that TSI is only contingently linked to critical systems thinking and that the latter's assumptions are not followed through in practice. TSI, in the final analysis, appears to be relying on commonsense, eclectically drawing on other problem-solving methods, but in itself unable to present a distinctively new, theoretically sound, and methodologically consistent approach.     

Toward Critical Intervention in Small and Medium—Sized Enterprises: A Case Study

The mainstream systems literature has so far paid little systematic attention to the small business arena, despite this being potentially a very significant sector for the systems community, given its importance in the UK economy. Small, growing enterprises experience particular managerial problems. This paper provides an example of the practical benefits of a systems approach in a small company experiencing growth. It examines the process of an intervention which took place over a 2-year period in a small manufacturing company as part of the UK government's Teaching Company Scheme. An attempt to extend critical systems thinking into the small company environment is discussed, identifying the challenges and opportunities presented by the setting to researchers. The paper draws on Habermas' theory of communicative action to explore the extent to which the intervention was inclusive and critically reflective. Strategies adopted to support inclusive practice are explored and general lessons are drawn out.     

运用网络科学研究军事理论的哲学思考

从历史的、哲学的角度分析了包括网络科学在内的现代科学研究“超越还原论”的科学思维模式出现和发展的情况,以及现代军事实践更加趋于“合”的现状;探讨了科学思维模式和相应的科学理论、技术工具用于军事理论研究的可行性、必要性;并阐述了网络科学对于军事理论研究的适用范围。     

A Maturing of Systems Thinking? Evidence from Three Perspectives

This paper reviews trends in systems theory/thinking from the 1970s to the early 2000s. It proposes a maturation of the field based on certain conceptual and methodological advances that have sought to liberate systems thinking from earlier strictures. An edited dialogue among three prominent systems thinkers from different systems schools—Merrelyn Emery, Bob Flood, and Eric Wolstenholme—provides evidence. Similarities and differences are identified, complementarities among the schools are derived and analyzed, and trajectories for future research are indicated.