Prolonged suppression of ecosystem carbon dioxide uptake after an anomalously warm year

Terrestrial ecosystems control carbon dioxide fluxes to and from the atmosphere through photosynthesis and respiration, a balance between net primary productivity and heterotrophic respiration, that determines whether an ecosystem is sequestering carbon or releasing it to the atmosphere. Global and site-specific data sets have demonstrated that climate and climate variability influence biogeochemical processes that determine net ecosystem carbon dioxide exchange (NEE) at multiple timescales. Experimental data necessary to quantify impacts of a single climate variable, such as temperature anomalies, on NEE and carbon sequestration of ecosystems at interannual timescales have been lacking. This derives from an inability of field studies to avoid the confounding effects of natural intra-annual and interannual variability in temperature and precipitation. Here we present results from a four-year study using replicate 12,000-kg intact tallgrass prairie monoliths located in four 184-m(3) enclosed lysimeters. We exposed 6 of 12 monoliths to an anomalously warm year in the second year of the study and continuously quantified rates of ecosystem processes, including NEE. We find that warming decreases NEE in both the extreme year and the following year by inducing drought that suppresses net primary productivity in the extreme year and by stimulating heterotrophic respiration of soil biota in the subsequent year. Our data indicate that two years are required for NEE in the previously warmed experimental ecosystems to recover to levels measured in the control ecosystems. This time lag caused net ecosystem carbon sequestration in previously warmed ecosystems to be decreased threefold over the study period, compared with control ecosystems. Our findings suggest that more frequent anomalously warm years, a possible consequence of increasing anthropogenic carbon dioxide levels, may lead to a sustained decrease in carbon dioxide uptake by terrestrial ecosystems.     

Europe-wide reduction in primary productivity caused by the heat and drought in 2003

Future climate warming is expected to enhance plant growth in temperate ecosystems and to increase carbon sequestration. But although severe regional heatwaves may become more frequent in a changing climate, their impact on terrestrial carbon cycling is unclear. Here we report measurements of ecosystem carbon dioxide fluxes, remotely sensed radiation absorbed by plants, and country-level crop yields taken during the European heatwave in 2003. We use a terrestrial biosphere simulation model to assess continental-scale changes in primary productivity during 2003, and their consequences for the net carbon balance. We estimate a 30 per cent reduction in gross primary productivity over Europe, which resulted in a strong anomalous net source of carbon dioxide (0.5 Pg C yr(-1)) to the atmosphere and reversed the effect of four years of net ecosystem carbon sequestration. Our results suggest that productivity reduction in eastern and western Europe can be explained by rainfall deficit and extreme summer heat, respectively. We also find that ecosystem respiration decreased together with gross primary productivity, rather than accelerating with the temperature rise. Model results, corroborated by historical records of crop yields, suggest that such a reduction in Europe's primary productivity is unprecedented during the last century. An increase in future drought events could turn temperate ecosystems into carbon sources, contributing to positive carbon-climate feedbacks already anticipated in the tropics and at high latitudes.     

Net carbon dioxide losses of northern ecosystems in response to autumn warming

The carbon balance of terrestrial ecosystems is particularly sensitive to climatic changes in autumn and spring, with spring and autumn temperatures over northern latitudes having risen by about 1.1 degrees C and 0.8 degrees C, respectively, over the past two decades. A simultaneous greening trend has also been observed, characterized by a longer growing season and greater photosynthetic activity. These observations have led to speculation that spring and autumn warming could enhance carbon sequestration and extend the period of net carbon uptake in the future. Here we analyse interannual variations in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration data and ecosystem carbon dioxide fluxes. We find that atmospheric records from the past 20 years show a trend towards an earlier autumn-to-winter carbon dioxide build-up, suggesting a shorter net carbon uptake period. This trend cannot be explained by changes in atmospheric transport alone and, together with the ecosystem flux data, suggest increasing carbon losses in autumn. We use a process-based terrestrial biosphere model and satellite vegetation greenness index observations to investigate further the observed seasonal response of northern ecosystems to autumnal warming. We find that both photosynthesis and respiration increase during autumn warming, but the increase in respiration is greater. In contrast, warming increases photosynthesis more than respiration in spring. Our simulations and observations indicate that northern terrestrial ecosystems may currently lose carbon dioxide in response to autumn warming, with a sensitivity of about 0.2 PgC degrees C(-1), offsetting 90% of the increased carbon dioxide uptake during spring. If future autumn warming occurs at a faster rate than in spring, the ability of northern ecosystems to sequester carbon may be diminished earlier than previously suggested.     

林业碳汇提升的主要原理和途径

降低大气CO₂含量、缓解气候变暖,已成为当今科学界和国际社会广泛关注的前沿热点问题。林业碳汇作为基于自然解决方案实现“碳达峰、碳中和”的一个重要途径,在应对全球气候变化方面发挥着基础性、战略性、独特的作用。林业碳汇不仅是森林碳汇,林产品碳汇也起着不可忽视的重要作用。林业碳汇潜力提升是一个森林生态系统净碳收支平衡和全产业链林产品碳汇的调控过程,主要包括无机碳的植物固定(光合过程、净生产力等)、土壤有机碳的周转与固定(动植物和微生物残体分解与黏土固定)、林产品碳的固持(林产品产量、木材转换效率、种类和使用寿命等)等3方面的调控原理。笔者从森林碳汇和林产品碳汇两个维度阐述了提升林业碳汇的主要原理、方法或途径。提升林业碳汇潜力的主要途径包括:①通过适地适树、适钙适树人工造林,以增加森林面积;②以完善森林经营措施来增加森林净生产力;③利用矿质黏土对有机碳的保护来增加森林土壤碳汇;④提升林产品产量和改进林产品用途以增加其寿命。在全球尺度上,增加森林面积或提高森林净生产力3.4%,或用可再生能源替换薪炭木材,再将薪炭木材用于制造锯材和人造板,都可以连续30 a每年增加1 Pg的碳汇量。减少全球森林火灾面积1/4或增加森林土壤有机碳含量0.23%,也可以增加碳汇1 Pg。此外,林业固碳还有巨大潜力可以挖掘。     

Offset of the potential carbon sink from boreal forestation by decreases in surface albedo

Carbon uptake by forestation is one method proposed to reduce net carbon dioxide emissions to the atmosphere and so limit the radiative forcing of climate change. But the overall impact of forestation on climate will also depend on other effects associated with the creation of new forests. In particular, the albedo of a forested landscape is generally lower than that of cultivated land, especially when snow is lying, and decreasing albedo exerts a positive radiative forcing on climate. Here I simulate the radiative forcings associated with changes in surface albedo as a result of forestation in temperate and boreal forest areas, and translate these forcings into equivalent changes in local carbon stock for comparison with estimated carbon sequestration potentials. I suggest that in many boreal forest areas, the positive forcing induced by decreases in albedo can offset the negative forcing that is expected from carbon sequestration. Some high-latitude forestation activities may therefore increase climate change, rather than mitigating it as intended.     

气候变化对森林生态系统的主要影响述评

森林生态系统是陆地生态系统的主体,其对减少大气中的CO₂浓度从而减缓全球变暖有着决定性的作用。为了探究气候变化对森林生态系统的影响以及森林生态系统的反馈机制,发展合理的森林经营策略以应对气候变化,笔者综述了国内外有关气候变化对森林生态系统影响的相关研究方法与成果,重点讨论了气候变化对森林结构、组成和分布、森林生产力、森林碳库、森林生态系统生物多样性、生态系统生态服务功能等方面的影响,论述了森林生态系统对气候变化的反馈机制,并指出了现有研究的不足之处,提出了适应或者减缓气候变化对森林生态系统影响的森林经营策略,主要包括:①坚决贯彻实施退耕还林政策; ②加强保护天然林; ③制定科学的森林经营对策; ④加速我国碳汇林业的发展。     

Acclimatization of soil respiration to warming in a tall grass prairie.

The latest report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) predicts a 1.4-5.8 degrees C average increase in the global surface temperature over the period 1990 to 2100 (ref. 1). These estimates of future warming are greater than earlier projections, which is partly due to incorporation of a positive feedback. This feedback results from further release of greenhouse gases from terrestrial ecosystems in response to climatic warming. The feedback mechanism is usually based on the assumption that observed sensitivity of soil respiration to temperature under current climate conditions would hold in a warmer climate. However, this assumption has not been carefully examined. We have therefore conducted an experiment in a tall grass prairie ecosystem in the US Great Plains to study the response of soil respiration (the sum of root and heterotrophic respiration) to artificial warming of about 2 degrees C. Our observations indicate that the temperature sensitivity of soil respiration decreases--or acclimatizes--under warming and that the acclimatization is greater at high temperatures. This acclimatization of soil respiration to warming may therefore weaken the positive feedback between the terrestrial carbon cycle and climate.     

洪泽湖地区杨树人工林碳水通量昼夜和季节变化特征

【目的】通过对洪泽湖地区杨树人工林生态系统碳水通量的昼夜变化和季节变化特征进行分析,为评估该杨树人工林生态系统的固碳能力提供必要的基础数据,揭示杨树人工林生态系统碳循环及对外部气象环境因子的响应,同时为增强森林生态系统固碳能力提供依据。【方法】以洪泽湖地区杨树人工林生态系统为研究对象,利用涡度相关技术和微气象观测系统进行长期且连续的通量以及气象环境观测。选取2017年5月至2018年4月期间的原始观测数据,对异常数据进行剔除和插补处理,同时,利用EddyPro软件中的Express Mode模块对通量数据进行二次坐标旋转、频率损失订正以及WPL密度效应修正,最终转化为30 min数据。分析杨树人工林生态系统与大气间的二氧化碳(CO₂)、甲烷(CH₄)和潜热(latent heat, LE)通量的季节动态变化和昼夜变化特征及其与外部气象环境因子的相互关系。【结果】洪泽湖地区杨树人工林生态系统碳通量均有显著的昼夜和季节变化,净生态系统碳交换(net ecosystem exchange, NEE)白天为较强的碳汇,夜晚为较弱的碳源,整年表现为固碳作用,年通量为-506.9 g/(m²·a)。其日变化在生长季和非生长季均呈“U”形曲线,生长季的碳吸收明显大于非生长季;在生长季白天,NEE与光合有效辐射(photosynthetically active radiation, PAR)呈显著的对数关系;而在非生长季,NEE与夜间土壤温度(soil temperature,T_s)呈显著的指数关系。洪泽湖地区杨树人工林生态系统LE的昼夜和季节变化显著,在生长季和非生长季均呈“单峰型”曲线,且在生长季大于非生长季,LE与饱和水汽压差(vapor pressure deficit, VPD)在生长季和非生长季均呈显著的线性正相关关系。洪泽湖地区杨树人工林生态系统CH₄通量在生长季和非生长季均无显著的昼夜变化,在生长季为较弱的CH₄吸收,非生长季为中性至微弱的CH₄排放,全年可能表现为较微弱的CH₄汇。【结论】洪泽湖地区杨树人工林生态系统整体具有较高的固碳能力,CO₂和LE通量具有显著的昼夜变化和季节变化规律,而CH₄通量季节和昼夜变化并不显著,生态系统碳水通量受环境因子的影响较显著,可以为今后提升杨树人工林的固碳能力提供参考。因此,营造杨树人工林将是短期内吸收大气中的CO₂和CH₄并缓解气候变化的有效途径。     

The human footprint in the carbon cycle of temperate and boreal forests

Temperate and boreal forests in the Northern Hemisphere cover an area of about 2 x 10(7) square kilometres and act as a substantial carbon sink (0.6-0.7 petagrams of carbon per year). Although forest expansion following agricultural abandonment is certainly responsible for an important fraction of this carbon sink activity, the additional effects on the carbon balance of established forests of increased atmospheric carbon dioxide, increasing temperatures, changes in management practices and nitrogen deposition are difficult to disentangle, despite an extensive network of measurement stations. The relevance of this measurement effort has also been questioned, because spot measurements fail to take into account the role of disturbances, either natural (fire, pests, windstorms) or anthropogenic (forest harvesting). Here we show that the temporal dynamics following stand-replacing disturbances do indeed account for a very large fraction of the overall variability in forest carbon sequestration. After the confounding effects of disturbance have been factored out, however, forest net carbon sequestration is found to be overwhelmingly driven by nitrogen deposition, largely the result of anthropogenic activities. The effect is always positive over the range of nitrogen deposition covered by currently available data sets, casting doubts on the risk of widespread ecosystem nitrogen saturation under natural conditions. The results demonstrate that mankind is ultimately controlling the carbon balance of temperate and boreal forests, either directly (through forest management) or indirectly (through nitrogen deposition).     

Reconciling the temperature dependence of respiration across timescales and ecosystem types

Ecosystem respiration is the biotic conversion of organic carbon to carbon dioxide by all of the organisms in an ecosystem, including both consumers and primary producers. Respiration exhibits an exponential temperature dependence at the subcellular and individual levels, but at the ecosystem level respiration can be modified by many variables including community abundance and biomass, which vary substantially among ecosystems. Despite its importance for predicting the responses of the biosphere to climate change, it is as yet unknown whether the temperature dependence of ecosystem respiration varies systematically between aquatic and terrestrial environments. Here we use the largest database of respiratory measurements yet compiled to show that the sensitivity of ecosystem respiration to seasonal changes in temperature is remarkably similar for diverse environments encompassing lakes, rivers, estuaries, the open ocean and forested and non-forested terrestrial ecosystems, with an average activation energy similar to that of the respiratory complex (approximately 0.65?electronvolts (eV)). By contrast, annual ecosystem respiration shows a substantially greater temperature dependence across aquatic (approximately 0.65?eV) versus terrestrial ecosystems (approximately 0.32?eV) that span broad geographic gradients in temperature. Using a model derived from metabolic theory, these findings can be reconciled by similarities in the biochemical kinetics of metabolism at the subcellular level, and fundamental differences in the importance of other variables besides temperature—such as primary productivity and allochthonous carbon inputs—on the structure of aquatic and terrestrial biota at the community level.     

紫色土丘陵区典型林地土壤温室气体释放研究

采用动态-密闭气室法(LI-6400-09)对紫色土丘陵区三种典型林地土壤温室气体释放进行连续测定.结果表明,温度是影响土壤呼吸的关键因子,各林地土壤呼吸速率与土壤温度呈正相关,都随温度呈指数增长.在温度较低的冬春季,土壤湿度对土壤呼吸的影响不明显,温度较高的夏季土壤湿度与林地(桤树,柏树)土壤呼吸速率呈显著性抛物线相关(p＜0.05);三种林地中,针叶林柏树林地土壤呼吸与土壤湿度相关性最好,当土壤含水量＜25%时,随着湿度的增加,土壤呼吸速率逐渐增大,之后随着湿度的增大,土壤呼吸速率逐渐减小.各季节的日变化规律表现不一致,冬春两季各林地土壤呼吸都和土壤温度的日变化趋势保持一致,表现为先升后减的趋势;夏秋两季,因为较高的土壤温度和表层土壤相对湿度的剧烈波动,各林地土壤呼吸日变化呈现不规则波动.     

Old-growth forests as global carbon sinks

Old-growth forests remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere at rates that vary with climate and nitrogen deposition. The sequestered carbon dioxide is stored in live woody tissues and slowly decomposing organic matter in litter and soil. Old-growth forests therefore serve as a global carbon dioxide sink, but they are not protected by international treaties, because it is generally thought that ageing forests cease to accumulate carbon. Here we report a search of literature and databases for forest carbon-flux estimates. We find that in forests between 15 and 800 years of age, net ecosystem productivity (the net carbon balance of the forest including soils) is usually positive. Our results demonstrate that old-growth forests can continue to accumulate carbon, contrary to the long-standing view that they are carbon neutral. Over 30 per cent of the global forest area is unmanaged primary forest, and this area contains the remaining old-growth forests. Half of the primary forests (6 x 10(8) hectares) are located in the boreal and temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. On the basis of our analysis, these forests alone sequester about 1.3 +/- 0.5 gigatonnes of carbon per year. Thus, our findings suggest that 15 per cent of the global forest area, which is currently not considered when offsetting increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations, provides at least 10 per cent of the global net ecosystem productivity. Old-growth forests accumulate carbon for centuries and contain large quantities of it. We expect, however, that much of this carbon, even soil carbon, will move back to the atmosphere if these forests are disturbed.     

根系输入对森林土壤碳库及碳循环的影响研究进展

植物根系输入是森林土壤碳库的重要来源。全球气候变化可能引起森林地下部分碳通量改变,进而影响森林土壤碳库及碳循环。笔者综述了根系输入对土壤碳累积、土壤活性碳库(包括土壤微生物生物量碳和可溶性有机碳)和土壤碳库稳定性的影响,综合分析了森林土壤呼吸、土壤微生物和土壤酶活性对根系输入变化的响应。分析发现:①根系输入减少可能减弱根际的激发效应,使土壤有机碳(SOC)短期增加,但从长期来看根系输入的缺失会导致SOC的减少;②根系分泌的一些物质促进土壤初始团聚体的形成,但其对矿物-有机质结合物稳定性的影响还不完全清楚;③根系输入减少会降低土壤呼吸作用;④微生物群落结构对根系输入变化的响应主要取决于微生物对底物质量和数量的适应,而这些响应在不同森林生态系统间可能也有差异;另外,酶合成主要取决于与微生物生长相关的资源分配到酶生产中的成本效率。目前,关于根系输入对碳循环,特别是土壤呼吸的研究比较多,但根系输入物组成复杂,微生物与酶对不同根系输入物的响应机制尚不清楚,这些响应在不同森林生态系统中也有差异;此外,根系输入对土壤碳库稳定性的作用常被忽视,根系与微生物的相互作用对碳循环和土壤碳库稳定性的影响还有很大不确定性。建议加强植物根系、土壤和微生物的相互关系研究,以深入理解气候变化背景下森林生态系统碳循环。     

农田土壤固碳及其影响因子研究进展

固碳过程对于改善土壤质量、维持农田生态系统、保障全球粮食安全、缓解气候变化趋势等至关重要。本文介绍了农田土壤的生物与非生物固碳过程,阐述了土壤质地、水热变化、全球变暖和人为因素对农田土壤固碳过程的影响。总结了目前较受重视的一些农田固碳措施（施肥、灌溉、秸秆还田、生物炭质施入等）及其对农田土壤固碳能力的改善和应用中存在的问题,并对今后的相关研究作出展望。     

林木根源有机C对大气CO2浓度升高的响应

林木根源有机C包括根系通过根枯落物、根系(根共生菌丝)分泌物和根共生菌周转3条途径向土壤输入的有机C.它是森林生态系统中一个重要的、潜在的C汇.综述了根源有机C与其微生物对CO2浓度升高的响应.虽然对根系寿命的变化尚不清楚,但CO2浓度升高将导致根系生物量、生产量、死亡量和分泌物的增加;同时,CO2升高亦促使根共生菌生物量的增加而增加了共生菌的C归还潜力,表明CO2升高使根源有机C的输入增加了.CO2浓度升高情况下,根系化学性质(根N浓度降低)和形态特征(根直径增加)的这些变化均有利于增加土壤C的吸存;而根分布深度的降低则对土壤C吸存不利;CO2浓度升高对根分泌物和根共生菌质量的影响研究则极少.CO2浓度升高下土壤微生物活性和群落组成的变化存在较大的不确定性.目前CO2浓度升高下林木根源有机C对森林长期C吸存的贡献仍很不清楚.     

短花针茅荒漠草原土壤呼吸对载畜率的响应(英文)

土壤碳通量是陆地生态系统中碳循环的重要组成部分.为了揭示放牧对荒漠草原土壤呼吸速率的影响,我们采取完全随机区组设计比较研究了不同载畜率下草地土壤的呼吸速率.试验包括4个处理,3次重复.4个处理分别是对照(CK)、轻度放牧(LG)、中度放牧(MG)和重度放牧(HG),相应的载畜率分别为0,0.91,1.82 和2.71只羊*hm-2*半年-1.在2004年和2006年8月,采用LI-6400-09土壤呼吸室与LI-6400连接对每个样地的土壤呼吸速率进行了测定,在测定过程中,同时获取了土壤温度及土壤呼吸室中的相对湿度等相关指标.通过对测定数据的分析表明,内蒙古荒漠草原土壤呼吸速率介于0.80 μmol·m-2·s-1与5.00 μmol·m-2·s-1之间.随着载畜率的增加,土壤呼吸速率明显增加(P<0.05).另外,土壤呼吸速率也随着土壤呼吸室中相对湿度的增加而增大,但是二者的相关关系不太明显(P>0.05).经过2年放牧后,重度放牧条件下的土壤呼吸速率明显低于对照区和轻度放牧区,不同载畜率下土壤呼吸速率随时间的变化并没有明显的差异.高载畜率下土壤呼吸速率明显降低可能与该条件下土壤水分和草地生物量的明显降低有关,土壤水分对土壤和大气之间CO2的交换起着非常重要的作用.     

基于多源遥感的森林变化对区域温度影响的监测方法研究进展

人类活动通过改变土地覆被促成森林面积变化,推动碳收支和地表能量平衡发生相应变化,进而影响全球和区域尺度的气候。现有森林变化对区域温度的影响研究主要集中在有限精度的森林变化数据与温度数据结合的简单统计方法,但高可靠度的森林变化及其生物物理过程对区域温度的影响研究表明,准确、全面地理解森林与气候之间的生物物理相互作用机制,能为森林生态系统的全面评估提供科学支撑。笔者综合分析了基于多源遥感的森林变化结合其生物物理过程对区域温度影响的多种监测方法,结果发现:①多源中高分辨率森林变化数据的有限可用性一直阻碍着对温度变化影响的精准量化;②集成遥感观测数据的多种方法在量化森林变化的生物物理机制对于区域温度变化影响的评价不一致。因此,森林变化的生物物理机制及其温度效应是一个值得深入分析的问题。未来需要充分发挥多种数据源合理集成后用于解释森林响应气候效应方面的交叉优势,理解生物物理机制与生物化学机制共同作用下的森林变化、碳循环与气候的交互关系,并通过森林生态系统的合理经营与管理实现其气候效益最大化。     

净生态系统生产力研究进展与问题

针对净生态系统生产力(NEP)的研究正处于起步阶段,尤其在土壤呼吸及其对气候变化的响应方面尚有许多具体工作有待展开,土地利用/覆被变化(LUCC)对净生态系统生产力的影响越来越受到科学界的重视等现实,较为系统地总结了当今关于净生态系统生产力的最新研究进展,并对现存的主要问题进行了一些必要的讨论.     

浑善达克沙地稀树疏林草地植被生物量及净初级生产力

 森林和草原等陆地生态系统在全球碳循环中扮演非常重要的角色,而发育在半干旱地区沙地上的疏林草地植被在这方面的作用还不清楚.本文对内蒙古浑善达克沙地榆树(Ulmus pumila L.)疏林草地的生物量、生产力(NPP)以及降水利用效率(RUE)区分不同生境,即固定沙地、半固定沙地、流动沙地、丘间低地、柳灌丛和低湿地进行了研究;分析和比较了植被碳库及NPP的分配情况.结果表明,疏林草地的平均生物量(21.30Mg·hm^-2)与NPP(11.06Mg·hm^-2·a^-1)分别比典型草原地带的平均值高90%和59%,RUE近于后者的2倍,沙地水平上的地下与地上生物量之比为2.9,说明大量的植被碳贮藏于地下,沙地中乔木对生物量和NPP的贡献不大,分别为10%和1.3%,但对于维持疏林草地的完整性具有重要功能.浑善达克沙地的疏林草地生态系统与地带性的典型温带草原不同,应属于一类温带萨王那生态系统类型,合理的管理和恢复措施将有助于其在畜牧业和碳固持方面生态系统服务功能的实现.     

不同放牧强度对典型草原雪的水文效应

采用冬季野外直接观测法,研究不同放牧强度对降雪、拦截雪、积雪的影响.结果表明,随放牧强度的增加,典型草原积雪深度和积雪量都呈现下降的趋势;冬季典型草原立枯物的高度和盖度与积雪深度和积雪量之间具有显著的正相关性;随植被(枯落物)盖度的增加,雪的风蚀量逐渐降低;在其他条件都相同的条件下,积雪深度和积雪量对典型草原的返青时期土壤含水量和植被盖度具有正向的影响,而对土壤容重具有负向的影响.