人源fidgetin like-1蛋白AAA结构域的重组表达及酶学性质分析

Fidgetin是2000年发现的一个AAA蛋白家族新成员,同源序列分析表明它与ka-tanin、spastin属于AAA家族的同一亚家族,因此可能也具有ATP依赖的微管切割活性,ATP的结合和水解应该发生于fidgetin蛋白中保守的AAA结构域.在大肠杆菌中重组表达的人源fidgetin like-1(FIGL-1)蛋白的AAA结构域片段(HsFIGL-1-AAA),纯化后的最终产率为每升5 mg蛋白.与AAA蛋白通常形成六聚体不同,HsFIGL-1-AAA在溶液中为单体,且其ATPase活性很低,仅为0.0063 s-1.与其他AAA蛋白的序列比对发现,Sensor 2 motif中保守的Arg残基在HsFIGL-1-AAA结构域中为Thr,但该位点的突变T609R并未明显改变该蛋白的ATPase活性.这些结果提示HsFIGL-1可能以一种特殊的方式发挥功能,这为进一步研究fidgetin及其同源蛋白的结构和功能奠定了基础.     

Structure and mechanism of the hexameric MecA-ClpC molecular machine

Regulated proteolysis by ATP-dependent proteases is universal in all living cells. Bacterial ClpC, a member of the Clp/Hsp100 family of AAA+ proteins (ATPases associated with diverse cellular activities) with two nucleotide-binding domains (D1 and D2), requires the adaptor protein MecA for activation and substrate targeting. The activated, hexameric MecA-ClpC molecular machine harnesses the energy of ATP binding and hydrolysis to unfold specific substrate proteins and translocate the unfolded polypeptide to the ClpP protease for degradation. Here we report three related crystal structures: a heterodimer between MecA and the amino domain of ClpC, a heterododecamer between MecA and D2-deleted ClpC, and a hexameric complex between MecA and full-length ClpC. In conjunction with biochemical analyses, these structures reveal the organizational principles behind the hexameric MecA-ClpC complex, explain the molecular mechanisms for MecA-mediated ClpC activation and provide mechanistic insights into the function of the MecA-ClpC molecular machine. These findings have implications for related Clp/Hsp100 molecular machines.     

The AAA ATPase Cdc48/p97 and its partners transport proteins from the ER into the cytosol.

In eukaryotic cells, incorrectly folded proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) are exported into the cytosol and degraded by the proteasome. This pathway is co-opted by some viruses. For example, the US11 protein of the human cytomegalovirus targets the major histocompatibility complex class I heavy chain for cytosolic degradation. How proteins are extracted from the ER membrane is unknown. In bacteria and mitochondria, members of the AAA ATPase family are involved in extracting and degrading membrane proteins. Here we demonstrate that another member of this family, Cdc48 in yeast and p97 in mammals, is required for the export of ER proteins into the cytosol. Whereas Cdc48/p97 was previously known to function in a complex with the cofactor p47 (ref. 5) in membrane fusion, we demonstrate that its role in ER protein export requires the interacting partners Ufd1 and Npl4. The AAA ATPase interacts with substrates at the ER membrane and is needed to release them as polyubiquitinated species into the cytosol. We propose that the Cdc48/p97-Ufd1-Npl4 complex extracts proteins from the ER membrane for cytosolic degradation.     

Structural basis for selective recognition of ESCRT-III by the AAA ATPase Vps4

The AAA+ ATPases are essential for various activities such as membrane trafficking, organelle biogenesis, DNA replication, intracellular locomotion, cytoskeletal remodelling, protein folding and proteolysis. The AAA ATPase Vps4, which is central to endosomal traffic to lysosomes, retroviral budding and cytokinesis, dissociates ESCRT complexes (the endosomal sorting complexes required for transport) from membranes. Here we show that, of the six ESCRT--related subunits in yeast, only Vps2 and Did2 bind the MIT (microtubule interacting and transport) domain of Vps4, and that the carboxy-terminal 30 residues of the subunits are both necessary and sufficient for interaction. We determined the crystal structure of the Vps2 C terminus in a complex with the Vps4 MIT domain, explaining the basis for selective ESCRT-III recognition. MIT helices alpha2 and alpha3 recognize a (D/E)xxLxxRLxxL(K/R) motif, and mutations within this motif cause sorting defects in yeast. Our crystal structure of the amino-terminal domain of an archaeal AAA ATPase of unknown function shows that it is closely related to the MIT domain of Vps4. The archaeal ATPase interacts with an archaeal ESCRT-III-like protein even though these organisms have no endomembrane system, suggesting that the Vps4/ESCRT-III partnership is a relic of a function that pre-dates the divergence of eukaryotes and Archaea.     

Small-molecule inhibitors of the AAA+ ATPase motor cytoplasmic dynein

The conversion of chemical energy into mechanical force by AAA+ (ATPases associated with diverse cellular activities) ATPases is integral to cellular processes, including DNA replication, protein unfolding, cargo transport and membrane fusion. The AAA+ ATPase motor cytoplasmic dynein regulates ciliary trafficking, mitotic spindle formation and organelle transport, and dissecting its precise functions has been challenging because of its rapid timescale of action and the lack of cell-permeable, chemical modulators. Here we describe the discovery of ciliobrevins, the first specific small-molecule antagonists of cytoplasmic dynein. Ciliobrevins perturb protein trafficking within the primary cilium, leading to their malformation and Hedgehog signalling blockade. Ciliobrevins also prevent spindle pole focusing, kinetochore-microtubule attachment, melanosome aggregation and peroxisome motility in cultured cells. We further demonstrate the ability of ciliobrevins to block dynein-dependent microtubule gliding and ATPase activity in vitro. Ciliobrevins therefore will be useful reagents for studying cellular processes that require this microtubule motor and may guide the development of additional AAA+ ATPase superfamily inhibitors.     

The structures of HsIU and the ATP-dependent protease HsIU-HsIV

The degradation of cytoplasmic proteins is an ATP-dependent process. Substrates are targeted to a single soluble protease, the 26S proteasome, in eukaryotes and to a number of unrelated proteases in prokaryotes. A surprising link emerged with the discovery of the ATP-dependent protease HslVU (heat shock locus VU) in Escherichia coli. Its protease component HslV shares approximately 20% sequence similarity and a conserved fold with 20S proteasome beta-subunits. HslU is a member of the Hsp100 (Clp) family of ATPases. Here we report the crystal structures of free HslU and an 820,000 relative molecular mass complex of HslU and HslV-the first structure of a complete set of components of an ATP-dependent protease. HslV and HslU display sixfold symmetry, ruling out mechanisms of protease activation that require a symmetry mismatch between the two components. Instead, there is conformational flexibility and domain motion in HslU and a localized order-disorder transition in HslV. Individual subunits of HslU contain two globular domains in relative orientations that correlate with nucleotide bound and unbound states. They are surprisingly similar to their counterparts in N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive fusion protein, the prototype of an AAA-ATPase. A third, mostly alpha-helical domain in HslU mediates the contact with HslV and may be the structural equivalent of the amino-terminal domains in proteasomal AAA-ATPases.     

Structure and function of a membrane component SecDF that enhances protein export

Protein translocation across the bacterial membrane, mediated by the secretory translocon SecYEG and the SecA ATPase, is enhanced by proton motive force and membrane-integrated SecDF, which associates with SecYEG. The role of SecDF has remained unclear, although it is proposed to function in later stages of translocation as well as in membrane protein biogenesis. Here, we determined the crystal structure of Thermus thermophilus SecDF at 3.3?? resolution, revealing a pseudo-symmetrical, 12-helix transmembrane domain belonging to the RND superfamily and two major periplasmic domains, P1 and P4. Higher-resolution analysis of the periplasmic domains suggested that P1, which binds an unfolded protein, undergoes functionally important conformational changes. In vitro analyses identified an ATP-independent step of protein translocation that requires both SecDF and proton motive force. Electrophysiological analyses revealed that SecDF conducts protons in a manner dependent on pH and the presence of an unfolded protein, with conserved Asp and Arg residues at the transmembrane interface between SecD and SecF playing essential roles in the movements of protons and preproteins. Therefore, we propose that SecDF functions as a membrane-integrated chaperone, powered by proton motive force, to achieve ATP-independent protein translocation.     

Chaperone release and unfolding of substrates in type III secretion

Type III protein secretion systems are essential virulence factors of many bacteria pathogenic to humans, animals and plants. These systems mediate the transfer of bacterial virulence proteins directly into the host cell cytoplasm. Proteins are thought to travel this pathway in a largely unfolded manner, and a family of customized cytoplasmic chaperones, which specifically bind cognate secreted proteins, are essential for secretion. Here we show that InvC, an ATPase associated with a Salmonella enterica type III secretion system, has a critical function in substrate recognition. Furthermore, InvC induces chaperone release from and unfolding of the cognate secreted protein in an ATP-dependent manner. Our results show a similarity between the mechanisms of substrate recognition by type III protein secretion systems and AAA + ATPase disassembly machines.     

拟南芥类结瘤素基因At1g01070的生物信息学分析

类结瘤素基因在非结瘤植物生长发育中承担着重要的功能,但仅少数基因的功能被鉴定.本研究对拟南芥类结瘤素MtN21(Medicago truncatula NODULIN 21)家族成员At1g01070进行了生物信息学分析及亚细胞定位验证.结果表明,At1g01070有两种可变剪切体,编码两种蛋白At1g01070.1和At1g01070.2,前者比后者在N端多47个氨基酸,它们的分子量分别为40KD和35KD,等电点分别为9.2和8.9;均含有2个MtN21蛋白的特征结构域EamA(药物/代谢物转运结构域),At1g01070.1比At1g01070.2多一个PLN00411结构域,且其靠近N端的EamA结构域较后者长;三级结构均由7个α-螺旋和一些不规则卷曲组成,分别含有10个和8个疏水跨膜区,均含13个磷酸化修饰位点,亚细胞定位预测主要定位在质膜;进化上,与琴叶拟南芥(Arabidopsis lyrata)亲缘关系最近;亚细胞定位结果显示At1g01070.1定位在质膜,与预测结果一致.推测At1g01070在植物体内可能参与物质运输.     

Insights into SCF ubiquitin ligases from the structure of the Skp1-Skp2 complex

F-box proteins are members of a large family that regulates the cell cycle, the immune response, signalling cascades and developmental programmes by targeting proteins, such as cyclins, cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors, IkappaBalpha and beta-catenin, for ubiquitination (reviewed in refs 1-3). F-box proteins are the substrate-recognition components of SCF (Skp1-Cullin-F-box protein) ubiquitin-protein ligases. They bind the SCF constant catalytic core by means of the F-box motif interacting with Skp1, and they bind substrates through their variable protein-protein interaction domains. The large number of F-box proteins is thought to allow ubiquitination of numerous, diverse substrates. Most organisms have several Skp1 family members, but the function of these Skp1 homologues and the rules of recognition between different F-box and Skp1 proteins remain unknown. Here we describe the crystal structure of the human F-box protein Skp2 bound to Skp1. Skp1 recruits the F-box protein through a bipartite interface involving both the F-box and the substrate-recognition domain. The structure raises the possibility that different Skp1 family members evolved to function with different subsets of F-box proteins, and suggests that the F-box protein may not only recruit substrate, but may also position it optimally for the ubiquitination reaction.     

Functional significance of the Kunitz-type inhibitory domains of lipoprotein-associated coagulation inhibitor

Blood coagulation can be initiated when factor VII or VIIa, a plasma protease, binds to its essential cofactor, tissue factor (TF), and proteolytically activates factors IX and X, triggering a cascade of events which eventually leads to the formation of thrombin and a fibrin clot. Plasma contains a lipoprotein-associated coagulation inhibitor (LACI) which inhibits activated factor X (Xa) directly and, in a Xa-dependent way, inhibits VII(a)/TF activity, presumably by forming a quaternary Xa/LACI/VII(a)/TF complex. Sequence analysis of complementary DNA clones has shown that LACI contains three tandemly repeated Kunitz-type serine protease inhibitory domains. To investigate the relationship between these Kunitz structures and LACI function, we have used site-directed mutagenesis to produce altered forms of LACI in which the residue at the active-site cleft of each Kunitz domain has been individually changed. The second Kunitz domain is required for efficient binding and inhibition of Xa, and both Kunitz domains 1 and 2 are required for the inhibition of VIIa/TF activity; but alteration of the active-site residue of the third Kunitz domain has no significant effect on either function. We propose that in the putative inhibitory complex, Kunitz domain 1 is bound to the active site of VII(a)/TF and that Kunitz domain 2 is bound to Xa's active site.     

Deg1 is involved in the degradation of the PsbO oxygen-evolving protein of photosystem II in Arabidopsis

Deg1, a thylakoid lumen-localized protease, retains both chaperone and protease activities. The in vivo function of Deg1 has been shown to be involved not only in PSII assembly but also in the degradation of PSII reaction center protein D1. Here we used the transgenic plants with reduced Deg1 to examine whether the lumen-localized proteins are also the substrates of Deg1 in vivo. Our results showed that the transgenic plants accumulated degradation products of the PsbO protein while the levels of full-length PsbO were not affected. The PsbO degradation products could be efficiently degraded by the recombinant Deg1. These results suggest that Deg1 is involved in the degradation of the PsbO degradation fragments, but not in the initial cleavage event itself.     

Crystal structure of Rac1 in complex with the guanine nucleotide exchange region of Tiam1

The principal guanine nucleotide exchange factors for Rho family G proteins contain tandem Dbl-homology (DH) and pleckstrin-homology (PH) domains that catalyse nucleotide exchange and the activation of G proteins. Here we have determined the crystal structure of the DH and PH domains of the T-lymphoma invasion and metastasis factor 1 (Tiam1) protein in complex with its cognate Rho family G protein, Rac1. The two switch regions of Rac1 are stabilized in conformations that disrupt both magnesium binding and guanine nucleotide interaction. The resulting cleft in Rac1 is devoid of nucleotide and highly exposed to solvent. The PH domain of Tiam1 does not contact Rac1, and the position and orientation of the PH domain is markedly altered relative to the structure of the uncomplexed, GTPase-free DH/PH element from Sos1. The Tiam1/Rac1 structure highlights the interactions that catalyse nucleotide exchange on Rho family G proteins, and illustrates structural determinants dictating specificity between individual Rho family members and their associated Dbl-related guanine nucleotide exchange factors.     

Crystal structure of the anthrax lethal factor.

Lethal factor (LF) is a protein (relative molecular mass 90,000) that is critical in the pathogenesis of anthrax. It is a highly specific protease that cleaves members of the mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase (MAPKK) family near to their amino termini, leading to the inhibition of one or more signalling pathways. Here we describe the crystal structure of LF and its complex with the N terminus of MAPKK-2. LF comprises four domains: domain I binds the membrane-translocating component of anthrax toxin, the protective antigen (PA); domains II, III and IV together create a long deep groove that holds the 16-residue N-terminal tail of MAPKK-2 before cleavage. Domain II resembles the ADP-ribosylating toxin from Bacillus cereus, but the active site has been mutated and recruited to augment substrate recognition. Domain III is inserted into domain II, and seems to have arisen from a repeated duplication of a structural element of domain II. Domain IV is distantly related to the zinc metalloprotease family, and contains the catalytic centre; it also resembles domain I. The structure thus reveals a protein that has evolved through a process of gene duplication, mutation and fusion, into an enzyme with high and unusual specificity.     

梅花鹿抗病毒蛋白的生物信息学分析

通过在线生物软件分析梅花鹿四种抗病毒蛋白A3Z2、BST-2A、BST-2B和SAMHD1蛋白的生物信息学特性。从转录组中获得四种蛋白的基因序列,应用Prot Param、Protscale、SOPMA、TMHMM、Target P、Signal P、Motif Scan、Interproscan以及BLAST等在线软件分析蛋白的理化性质、二级结构、穿膜域、结构域等等。首次获得了四种抗病毒因子的基因和蛋白序列,梅花鹿A3Z2基因编码393个氨基酸,相对分子质量为47.59 k Da,碱性,不稳定性亲水蛋白,无信号肽和跨膜结构域,胞内定位,具有糖基化和磷酸化位点,两个胞嘧啶脱氨酶结构域。梅花鹿BST-2A和2B基因编码159个氨基酸,相对分子质量为17.69 k Da和18.12 k Da,酸性,不稳定性亲水蛋白,无信号肽,BST-2A有两个跨膜结构域,BST-2B有一个跨膜结构域,膜定位,具有糖基化和磷酸化位点。梅花鹿SAMHD1基因编码613个氨基酸,相对分子质量为70.51 k Da,碱性,不稳定性亲水蛋白,无信号肽和跨膜结构域,胞内定位,具有磷酸化位点,d NTP磷酸水解酶活性结构域。梅花鹿A3Z2、BST-2A、BST-2B和SAMHD1蛋白具有潜在的抗病毒能力。     

Homology of a yeast actin-binding protein to signal transduction proteins and myosin-I

In yeast, the cortical actin cytoskeleton seems to specify sites of growth of the cell surface. Because the actin-binding protein ABP1p is associated with the cortical cytoskeleton of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, it might be involved in the spatial organization of cell surface growth. ABP1p is localized to the cortical cytoskeleton and its overproduction causes assembly of the cortical actin cytoskeleton at inappropriate sites on the cell surface, resulting in delocalized surface growth. We have now cloned and sequenced the gene encoding ABP1p. ABP1p is a novel protein with a 50 amino-acid C-terminal domain that is very similar to the SH3 domain in the non-catalytic region of nonreceptor tyrosine kinases (including those encoded by the proto-oncogenes c-src and c-abl), in phospholipase C gamma and in alpha-spectrin. We also identified an SH3-related motif in the actin-binding tail domain of myosin-I. The identification of SH3 domains in a family of otherwise unrelated proteins that associate with the membrane cytoskeleton indicates that this domain might serve to bring together signal transduction proteins and their targets or regulators, or both, in the membrane cytoskeleton.     

Crystal structure of a rhomboid family intramembrane protease

Escherichia coli GlpG is an integral membrane protein that belongs to the widespread rhomboid protease family. Rhomboid proteases, like site-2 protease (S2P) and gamma-secretase, are unique in that they cleave the transmembrane domain of other membrane proteins. Here we describe the 2.1 A resolution crystal structure of the GlpG core domain. This structure contains six transmembrane segments. Residues previously shown to be involved in catalysis, including a Ser-His dyad, and several water molecules are found at the protein interior at a depth below the membrane surface. This putative active site is accessible by substrate through a large 'V-shaped' opening that faces laterally towards the lipid, but is blocked by a half-submerged loop structure. These observations indicate that, in intramembrane proteolysis, the scission of peptide bonds takes place within the hydrophobic environment of the membrane bilayer. The crystal structure also suggests a gating mechanism for GlpG that controls substrate access to its hydrophilic active site.     

Structure of the DNA deaminase domain of the HIV-1 restriction factor APOBEC3G

The human APOBEC3G (apolipoprotein B messenger-RNA-editing enzyme, catalytic polypeptide-like 3G) protein is a single-strand DNA deaminase that inhibits the replication of human immunodeficiency virus-1 (HIV-1), other retroviruses and retrotransposons. APOBEC3G anti-viral activity is circumvented by most retroelements, such as through degradation by HIV-1 Vif. APOBEC3G is a member of a family of polynucleotide cytosine deaminases, several of which also target distinct physiological substrates. For instance, APOBEC1 edits APOB mRNA and AID deaminates antibody gene DNA. Although structures of other family members exist, none of these proteins has elicited polynucleotide cytosine deaminase or anti-viral activity. Here we report a solution structure of the human APOBEC3G catalytic domain. Five alpha-helices, including two that form the zinc-coordinating active site, are arranged over a hydrophobic platform consisting of five beta-strands. NMR DNA titration experiments, computational modelling, phylogenetic conservation and Escherichia coli-based activity assays combine to suggest a DNA-binding model in which a brim of positively charged residues positions the target cytosine for catalysis. The structure of the APOBEC3G catalytic domain will help us to understand functions of other family members and interactions that occur with pathogenic proteins such as HIV-1 Vif.     

The alpha-lytic protease pro-region does not require a physical linkage to activate the protease domain in vivo

alpha-Lytic protease, an extracellular serine protease of Lysobacter enzymogenes 495, is synthesized as a pre-pro-protein. Previously it has been shown that when expressed in Escherichia coli, the protein is autocatalytically processed in the periplasmic space, and that the functional protease domain accumulates extracellularly. Engineered proteins lacking the 166 amino-acid pro-region were enzymatically inactive and remained cell-associated. By independently expressing the pro- and protease domains in vivo, evidence is provided here that direct covalent linkage is not required for production of active protease. We postulate that the pro-region acts as a template to promote the folding of the protease domain into an active configuration. Our results, combined with recent experiments on the evolutionarily unrelated subtilisin E (ref. 3), suggest that the ability of the pro-region of these bacterial proteases to facilitate folding of their protease domains is not a curiosity of a single system, but may reflect a general property of extracellular bacterial serine proteases.