Precise positioning of the Chang’E-3 lunar lander using a kinematic statistical method

A kinematic statistical method is proposed to determine the position for Chang’E-3(CE-3) lunar lander.This method uses both ranging and VLBI measurements to the lander for a continuous arc,combing with precise knowledge about the motion of the moon as provided by planetary ephemeris,to estimate the lander’s position on the lunar surface with high accuracy.Accuracy analyses are carried out with simulation data using the software developed at Shanghai Astronomical Observatory in this study to show that measurement errors will dominate the position accuracy.Application of lunar digital elevation model(DEM) as constraints in the lander positioning is also analyzed.Simulations show that combing range/doppler and VLBI data,single epoch positioning accuracy is at several hundred meters level,but with ten minutes data accumulation positioning accuracy is able to be achieved with several meters.Analysis also shows that the information given by DEM can provide constraints in positioning,when DEM data reduce a 3-dimensional positioning problem to 2-dimensional.Considering the Sinus Iridum,CE-3 lander’s planned landing area,has been observed with dedicated details during the CE-1 and CE-2 missions,and its regional DEM model accuracy may be higher than global models,which will certainly support CE-3’s lander positioning.     

Improvement of orbit determination for geostationary satellites with VLBI tracking

China’s COMPASS satellite navigation system consists of five or more geostationary (GEO) satellites.The roles of GEO satellites are to improve the regional user’s positioning accuracy and provide the continuous Radio Determination Satellite Service.The motion of GEO satellites relative to a ground tracking station is almost fixed,and regular orbit maneuvers are necessary to maintain the satellites’ allocated positions above the equator.These features present difficulties in precise orbit determination (POD).C-band ranging via onboard transponders and the L-band pseudo-ranging technique have been used in the COMPASS system.This paper introduces VLBI tracking,which has been successfully employed in the Chinese lunar exploration programs Chang’E-1 and Chang’E-2,to the POD of GEO satellites.In contrast to ranging,which measures distances between a GEO satellite and an observer,VLBI is an angular measurement technique that constrains the satellite’s position errors perpendicular to the satellite-to-observer direction.As a demonstration,the Chinese VLBI Network organized a tracking and orbit-determination experiment for a GEO navigation satellite lasting 24 h.This paper uses the VLBI delay and delay-rate data,in combination with C-band ranging data,to determine the GEO satellite’s orbit.The accuracies of the VLBI delay and delay rate data are about 3.6 ns and 0.4 ps/s,respectively.Data analysis shows that the VLBI data are able to calibrate systematic errors of the C-band ranging data,and the combination of the two observations improves orbit prediction accuracy with short-arc data,which is important for orbital recovery after maneuvers of GEO satellites.With the implementation of VLBI2010,it is possible for VLBI to be applied in the COMPASS satellite navigation system.     

Determination of the controlled landing trajectory of Chang’E-1 satellite and the coordinate analysis of the landing point on the Moon

Based on the tracking observations of radio ranges and VLBI delays of Chang’E-1 (CE-1) satellite during the controlled landing on the Moon on March 1, 2009, the landing trajectory and the coordinates of the landing point are determined by positioning analysis. It is shown that the landing epoch (the emission epoch of the last signal) of CE-1 satellite on the Moon was at UTC8h13m6.51s. The lunar longitude, latitude and surface height of the landing point in the lunar primary axes frame are respectively 52.27...     

The Primal Exploration of Space launch and Manned Lunar-landing

The lunar-landing is the continuity of manned spaceflight engineering. Comparing with the manned spacecraft engineering, it requires more reliability , larger scale, and more funds. On the basis of China＇ s achievements and the experiences of foreign com~tries, the paper brings forward the idea that using the existing transportation technology to send the launch vehicles and cosmonauts to the near-earth orbit in batches, assembling the components together on the space-launch platform, and then launching them to the moon to fulfill our dream of manned landing on the moon. The paper also discusses the space launch platform and the launching ways.     

Satellite orbit determination combining C-band ranging and differenced ranges by transfer

The constraint in the transverse direction of satellite orbit with differenced ranges between master station and slave stations by transfer as an angular observation data is explained in theory. Differenced ranges in combination with C-band ranging by transfer were used in satellite orbit determination. The position error of overlapped orbit differences for combining is less than that for ranging only. The residual of predicted orbit forward 5.5 days for combining is 3.1762 m, while the residual for ranging only with the same duration is 3.5380 m. Both the orbital overlapping and orbit prediction experimentations can testify the constraint in the transverse direction of satellite orbit with differenced ranges, and the results show that the accuracy of orbit determination and orbit prediction is improved by combining differenced ranges and C-band ranging.     

Variation properties of ionospheric eclipse factor and ionospheric influence factor

The concepts and calculation methods of ionospheric eclipse factor (IEF) and ionospheric influence factor (IFF) are further illustrated. The temporal an d spacial variation properties of IEF and IFF are studied, which shows that the properties are influenced by the geographic position and season. The possibility of improving the precision of using GPS data to determine ionospheric delay bas ed on the above variation properties is also analysed.     

Precise orbit determination for Jason-1 satellite using on-board GPS data with cm-level accuracy

The joint US/French Jason-1 satellite altimeter mission, launched from the Vandenberg Air Force Base on December 7, 2001, continues the time series of centimeter-level ocean topography observations as the follow-on to the highly successful T/P radar altimeter satellite. Orbit error especially the radial orbit error is a major component in the overall budget of all altimeter satellite missions, in order to continue the T/P standard of observations. Jason-1 has a radial orbit error budget requirement of 2.5 cm. In this work, two cycles (December 19, 2002 to January 7, 2003) of the Jason-1 on-board GPS data were processed using the zero-difference (ZD) dynamic precise orbit determination (POD) technique. The resulting Jason-1 orbit accuracy was assessed by comparison with the precise orbit ephemeris (POE) produced by JPL, orbit overlaps and SLR residuals. These evaluations indicate that the RMS radial accuracy is in the range of 1－2 cm.     

Determination of cloud-top height from stereoscopic observation

A new and accurate method is presented based on the cloud movement (height and position), the spherical and plane triangular relationships of the spacecraft, the center of the earth, the projected-cloud and the true-cloud for determination of cloud-top height and position. Synthetic stereo images that have spatial resolution of 1.25 km from a single satellite are used to test this method. It is demonstrated that the cloud-top structure can be determined from the stereoscopic measurements of geo-synchronous satellite with vertical accuracy of approximately 500 m. The vertical accuracy can be better with lower orbiters.     

Variation of satellite transponder delay

For precise orbit determination of geosynchronous earth orbit(GEO)satellites using transfer ranging observations,it is generally assumed that the variation of the satellite transponder delay is very small and that it can be solved as a constant parameter together with satellite orbit parameters.However,this assumption is too general and it reduces the accuracy of orbit determination for GEO satellites.To study and analyse the impact of the satellite transponder delay on GEO satellites orbit determination,two schemes were proposed.First,the satellite transponder delay was eliminated by forming single-difference observations between two ground stations;second,the satellite transponder delay was described as a constant parameter.The preliminary results demonstrate a difference of about1–2 m between the two schemes when used for precise orbit determination of GEO satellites.By fixing the GEO satellite orbit and other relevant parameters estimated by single-difference model,we inversed the instantaneous transponder delay from non-difference observation.It was found that the satellite transponder delay has a distinct diurnal variation,with an amplitude of 3–4 m.The findings of this paper are helpful in establishing an accurate model of satellite transponder delay and in improving the accuracy of GEO satellites orbit determinations and predictions.     

Nearest neighbor search algorithm forGBD tree spatial data structure

： This paper describes the nearest neighbor （NN） search algorithm on the GBD（generalized BD） tree. The GBD tree is a spatial data structure suitable for two- or three-dimensional data and has good performance characteristics with respect to the dynamic data environment. On GIS and CAD systems, the R-tree and its-successors have been used. In addition, the NN search algorithm is also proposed in an attempt to obtain good performance from the R-tree. On the other hand, the GBD tree is superior to the R-tree with respect to exact match retrieval, because the GBD tree has auxiliary data that uniquely determines the position of the object in the structure. The proposed NN search algorithm depends on the property of the GBD tree described above. The NN search algorithm on the GBD tree was studied and the performance thereof was evaluated through experiments.     

Analysis of the global T_m–T_s correlation and establishment of the latitude-related linear model

In this study,the correlation between Tm,a key variable in GNSS water vapor inversion,and surface temperature(Ts)was calculated on a global scale based on the global geodetic observing system(GGOS)atmosphere Tmdata and European centre for medium-range weather forecasts(ECMWF)surface temperature data.The results show that their correlation is mainly affected by latitudes,and the correlation is stronger at high latitudes and weaker at low latitudes.Although the correlation is relatively weak in the tropic areas,the temperature changes so little in a year in these areas that we can still achieve good Tmresults by linear regression model.Based on these facts,‘‘GGOS atmosphere’’Tmdata and ECMWF Tsdata from 2005 to2011 were used to establish the global latitude-related linear regression model.The new model has root mean square error(RMSE)of 3.2,3.3,and 4.4 K,respectively,compared with respect to the‘‘GGOS atmosphere’’data,COSMIC data,and radiosonde data and is more accurate than the Bevis Tm–Tsrelationship.     

The modeling analysis of microwave emission from stratified media of non-uniform lunar cratered terrain surface for Chinese Chang-E 1 observation

In China’s first lunar exploration project,Chang-E 1,the multi-channel (3.0,7.8,19.35,37 GHz) microwave radiometers were aboard the satellite,with the purpose of measuring microwave brightness temperature from lunar surface and surveying the global distribution of lunar regolith layer thickness,and global evaluation of 3He content.To analyze the modeling of microwave radiative transfer from three-layered media of lunar surface,some factors,such as the cratered lunar surface roughness,scattering of regolith particulate medium with temperature profile,are discussed.Based on the statistics of the lunar cratered terrain and using Monte Carlo (MC) method,the cratered lunar surfaces are numerically generated.The triangulated network is utilized to divide the undulated lunar surface into discrete triangle meshes with the size 10 m as a digital surface topography.The reflectivities of each plane mesh are calculated,and the average reflectivity for all MC-realized lunar surfaces is obtained.It is found that under the spatial resolution of 30 km×30 km of Chang-E 1 radiometer observation,the lunar surface can be well modeled as a flat surface.It makes the predominance of the parameters,such as the regolith layer thickness and stratified structures,to be studied.Using the radiative transfer equation of stratified media with dense scatterers,the scattering coefficient of the regolith particulate medium is found negligible,and the emission is mainly governed by the absorptive property of the medium.Brightness temperature of multi-layered media,i.e.lunar soil,regolith layer with temperature profile and underlying rock media,are derived and calculated,and relevant main factors to affect the modeling and emission simulation are analyzed.     

Photometric modeling of the Moon using Lommel-Seeliger function and Chang’E-1 IIM data

The imaging intefferometer （IIM） aboard the Chang＇E-1 lunar orbiter is the first multispectral imaging spectrometer for Chinese lunar missions. Before science applications （e.g., FeO and TiO= mapping） of the IIM raw data, the radiance variation due to changes in illumination and viewing geometry has to be removed from the radiometrically calibrated IIM Level 2A images. To achieve this, we fit the IIM Level 2A radiance data with a Lornmel-Seeliger photometric model consisting of an exponential term and a fourth order polynomial in the phase function, without distinguishing between lunar maria and highlands. The exponential and the fourth order polynomial parameters are derived separately by fitting to two datasets divided at a solar phase angle threshold, avoiding a decrease in the phase function close to zero phase angle. Different phase angle thresholds result in coincident fitting curves between 20° and 75°, while large discrepancies occur at other phase angles. Then the derived photometric model is used to normalize the IIM Level 2A data to radiance values at an incidence and phase angle of 30° and emission angle of 0°. Our photometric model is validated by comparing two photometrically normalized IIM radiance spectra covering the same areas, showing a relative deviation consistent with the IIM preflight calibration.     

Strain Rate Effect on the Tensile Behavior of Fibers and Its Application to Ballistic Perforation of Multi-layered Fabrics

Rate-dependent property of material is very important in analysis of ballistic impact. The tensile property of Twaron ?filaments at strain rate range from 0.01/s to 1000/s was obtained by MTS materials testing and split Hopkinson tension bar. Rate sensitivity of Twaron ?filaments is discussed. Application of high strain rate property to ballistic perforation of multi-layered fabrics conforms to the actual situation than that of quasi-static property. The revised analytical model can be used to calculate the process of ballistic penetration and perforation on soft armour, such as fabric target plate, at intuitive approach and simple algorithm with a little computer process time. Predictions of the residual velocities and energy absorbed by the multi-layered fabric show good agreement with experimental data.     

Preliminary results of TiO<Subscript>2</Subscript> mapping using Imaging Interferometer data from Chang’E-1

The distribution of titanium abundance on the lunar surface is important knowledge for lunar geologic studies and future resource utilization.In this paper,we develop a preliminary model based on"ground truths"from Apollo and Luna sample-return sites to produce a titanium abundance map from Chang’E-1 Imaging Interferometer(IIM) images.The derived TiO2 abundances are validated with Clementine UVVIS results in several regions,including lunar highlands neighboring the Apollo 16 landing site,and high-Ti and low-Ti maria near the standard site of Mare Serenitatis(MS2) .The validation results show that TiO2 abundances modeled with Chang’E-1 IIM data are overestimated for highlands(～0.7 wt.%) and low-Ti maria(～1.5 wt.%) and underestimated for high-Ti maria(～0.8 wt.%).     

Efficient Algorithm for Prolonging Network Lifetime of Wireless Sensor Networks

One of the fundamental design challenges in designing a Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) is to maximize the network lifetime,as each sensor node of the network is equipped with a limited power battery.To overcome this challenge,different methods were developed in the last few years using such techniques as network protocols,data fusion algorithms using low power,energy efficient routing,and locating optimal sink position.This paper focuses on finding the optimal sink position.Relay nodes are introduced in conjunction with the sensor nodes to mitigate network geometric deficiencies since in most other approaches the sensor nodes close to the sink become heavily involved in data forwarding and,thus,their batteries are quickly depleted.A Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) based algorithm is used to locate the optimal sink position with respect to those relay nodes to make the network more energy efficient.The relay nodes communicate with the sink instead of the sensor nodes.Tests show that this approach can save at least 40% of the energy and prolong the network lifetime.     

Simulation and evaluation of the quality and availability of typical GLI ocean image

ADEOS-II satellite will be launched in the near future. It collocates many remote sensing instruments in the same platform. Among them, Global Image (GLI) is considered to be a main sensor which will play a key role. In order to understand the characteristics of future GLI ocean color images, a simulation and evaluation of the quality and availability of GLI typical ocean image has been done. In the paper, we first introduce the simulation models briefly, and simulate typical cases of radiance images at visible channels, in which the radiance distribution is based on geographic location, the satellite orbital parameters and sensor properties. A method, complex signal noise ratio (CSNR) to evaluate the image quality and availability, is developed according to the characteristics of image. Meanwhile, a series of CSNR images are generated from the simulated radiance components for different cases, which can be used to evaluate the quality and availability of GLI images before the ADEOS-II is placed in orbit. Finally, the quality and availability of GLI images are quantitatively analyzed by the simulated CSNR data. The results will be beneficial to the people who are in charge of GLI mission or plan to use the data from GLI.     

Energetic particle radiations measured by particle detector on board CBERS-1 satellite

Using the data measured by energetic particle detector on board CBERS-01 and -02 for the past five years, statistics was made to show the general features of MeV electrons and protons along a solar synchronous orbit at an altitude of 780 km. This height is in the bottom region of the Earth's radiation belts. Detectors are inside the satellite cabinet and such continuous monitoring of particle radiation environment inside a satellite has seldom conducted so far. After a proper and careful treatment, it is indicated that the data inside satellite are well correlated with the radiation environment outside. Be-sides the agreement of the general distribution characteristics of energetic electrons and protons with similar observations from other satellites, attention is particularly paid to the disturbed conditions. Variations of particle fluxes are closely related with solar proton events, in general, electron fluxes of outer belt are well correlated with Dst index after three days' delay while the electron injection occurred almost at the same day during great magnetic storms. It is confirmed that both energetic electrons and protons appear in the Polar Cap region only after the solar proton events.     

Retrospect and Prospect of the Influence Diagram

The evaluation algorithm and the application of the influence diagram were surveyed, which argues that to construct an explicit,compact and objective influence diagram is of the most importance. There are two suggested ways for realization of the influence diagram: introducing the achievements of the modern psychology, cognitive science, behavior science, and so on to represent and solve uncertainty to build a well-constructed influence diagram; based on the observed data to build an influence diagram. Also, the limitations of the influence diagram were analyzed, such as that it cannot deal with asynunetric problems efficiently, cannot picture dynamic problems,cannot model the problems with a limitless horizon, and ther is no highly efficient algorithm. And some potential methods to overcome these limitations were pointed out.     

The New Detection and the Basic Characteristics of the Structural System of Taiwan Region of China—Using the Earth Satellite''''s Remote-sensing Images to Explain the Structural System of Taiwan Region of China

1 Forewords The Taiwan region is a special geographicunit[1]of China , its western edge is TaiwanStrait,facing Fujian Province of the mainland,and theits eastern edgeisthe Pacific Ocean,andits south edge is near the Bushi Straits ,and itsnorthern edge is connected to the Liuqiu Islands .Taiwan has its special geographical position,bingconnected with the island-chains , tightlydependent on the mainland and closed to theocean,andturns to be animportant harbor and amidway—change-station in f…