Structural changes of envelope proteins during alphavirus fusion

Alphaviruses are enveloped RNA viruses that have a diameter of about 700?? and can be lethal human pathogens. Entry of virus into host cells by endocytosis is controlled by two envelope glycoproteins, E1 and E2. The E2-E1 heterodimers form 80 trimeric spikes on the icosahedral virus surface, 60 with quasi-three-fold symmetry and 20 coincident with the icosahedral three-fold axes arranged with T = 4 quasi-symmetry. The E1 glycoprotein has a hydrophobic fusion loop at one end and is responsible for membrane fusion. The E2 protein is responsible for receptor binding and protects the fusion loop at neutral pH. The lower pH in the endosome induces the virions to undergo an irreversible conformational change in which E2 and E1 dissociate and E1 forms homotrimers, triggering fusion of the viral membrane with the endosomal membrane and then releasing the viral genome into the cytoplasm. Here we report the structure of an alphavirus spike, crystallized at low pH, representing an intermediate in the fusion process and clarifying the maturation process. The trimer of E2-E1 in the crystal structure is similar to the spikes in the neutral pH virus except that the E2 middle region is disordered, exposing the fusion loop. The amino- and carboxy-terminal domains of E2 each form immunoglobulin-like folds, consistent with the receptor attachment properties of E2.     

No T-cell tyrosine protein kinase signalling or calcium mobilization after CD4 association with HIV-1 or HIV-1 gp120.

The T lymphocyte surface protein CD4 is an integral membrane glycoprotein noncovalently associated with the tyrosine protein kinase p56lck. In normal T cells, surface association of CD4 molecules with other CD4 molecules or other T-cell surface proteins, such as the T-cell antigen receptor, stimulates the activity of the p56lck tyrosine kinase, resulting in the phosphorylation of various cellular proteins at tyrosine residues. Thus, the signal transduction in T cells generated through the surface engagement of CD4 is similar to that observed for the class of growth factor receptors possessing endogenous tyrosine kinase activity. As CD4 is also the cellular receptor for the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), binding of the virus or gp120 (the virus surface protein responsible for specific CD4+ T-cell association) could mimic the types of immunological interactions that have previously been found to stimulate p56lck and trigger T-cell activation pathways. We have evaluated this possibility and report here that binding of HIV-1 or the virus glycoprotein gp120 to CD4+ human T cells fails to elicit detectable p56lck-dependent tyrosine kinase activation and signalling, alterations in the composition of cellular phosphotyrosine-containing proteins, or changes in intracellular Ca2+ concentration.     

Basis for a ubiquitin-like protein thioester switch toggling E1-E2 affinity

Ubiquitin-like proteins (UBLs) are conjugated by dynamic E1-E2-E3 enzyme cascades. E1 enzymes activate UBLs by catalysing UBL carboxy-terminal adenylation, forming a covalent E1 throught UBL thioester intermediate, and generating a thioester-linked E2 throught UBL product, which must be released for subsequent reactions. Here we report the structural analysis of a trapped UBL activation complex for the human NEDD8 pathway, containing NEDD8's heterodimeric E1 (APPBP1-UBA3), two NEDD8s (one thioester-linked to E1, one noncovalently associated for adenylation), a catalytically inactive E2 (Ubc12), and MgATP. The results suggest that a thioester switch toggles E1-E2 affinities. Two E2 binding sites depend on NEDD8 being thioester-linked to E1. One is unmasked by a striking E1 conformational change. The other comes directly from the thioester-bound NEDD8. After NEDD8 transfer to E2, reversion to an alternate E1 conformation would facilitate release of the E2 throught NEDD8 thioester product. Thus, transferring the UBL's thioester linkage between successive conjugation enzymes can induce conformational changes and alter interaction networks to drive consecutive steps in UBL cascades.     

Molecular architecture of native HIV-1 gp120 trimers

The envelope glycoproteins (Env) of human and simian immunodeficiency viruses (HIV and SIV, respectively) mediate virus binding to the cell surface receptor CD4 on target cells to initiate infection. Env is a heterodimer of a transmembrane glycoprotein (gp41) and a surface glycoprotein (gp120), and forms trimers on the surface of the viral membrane. Using cryo-electron tomography combined with three-dimensional image classification and averaging, we report the three-dimensional structures of trimeric Env displayed on native HIV-1 in the unliganded state, in complex with the broadly neutralizing antibody b12 and in a ternary complex with CD4 and the 17b antibody. By fitting the known crystal structures of the monomeric gp120 core in the b12- and CD4/17b-bound conformations into the density maps derived by electron tomography, we derive molecular models for the native HIV-1 gp120 trimer in unliganded and CD4-bound states. We demonstrate that CD4 binding results in a major reorganization of the Env trimer, causing an outward rotation and displacement of each gp120 monomer. This appears to be coupled with a rearrangement of the gp41 region along the central axis of the trimer, leading to closer contact between the viral and target cell membranes. Our findings elucidate the structure and conformational changes of trimeric HIV-1 gp120 relevant to antibody neutralization and attachment to target cells.     

甲病毒诊断方法的研究进展

甲病毒是一类以蚊虫等吸血节肢动物为传播媒介,引起人畜疾病的重要病原体.随着全球气候和生态环境的改变,近几年许多甲病毒病呈现渐盛的状况.据病毒种类和宿主不同,引起疾病的症状也不同,一些发热原因不明的患者也往往与该类病毒感染有关,因此对甲病毒感染的早期诊断技术研究具有重要的意义.目前,甲病毒的诊断主要依靠病毒分离、血清学和分子生物学等诊断方法,文章就近年来国内外甲病毒诊断方法的最新研究进展作一综述.     

T-lymphocyte T4 molecule behaves as the receptor for human retrovirus LAV

Many viruses, including retroviruses, are characterized by their specific cell tropism. Lymphadenopathy-associated virus (LAV) is a human lymphotropic retrovirus isolated from patients with acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) or related syndromes, that displays selective tropism for a subset of T lymphocytes defined by the expression of a surface glycoprotein of relative molecular mass 62,000 (62K) termed T4 (refs 6-8). This glycoprotein delineates a subset of T lymphocytes with mainly helper/inducer functions, while T lymphocytes of the reciprocal subset express a glycoprotein termed T8, have mainly cytotoxic/suppressor activities, and are unable to replicate LAV. Such a tropism may be controlled at the genomic level by regulatory sequences, as described for the human T-cell leukaemia viruses HTLV-I and -II (refs 2, 3). Alternatively or concomitantly, productive cell infection may be controlled at the membrane level, requiring the interaction of a specific cellular receptor with the virus envelope, as demonstrated recently for Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). Therefore, we have investigated whether the T4 molecule itself is related to the receptor for LAV. We report here that preincubation of T4+ lymphocytes with three individual monoclonal antibodies directed at the T4 glycoprotein blocked cell infection by LAV. This blocking effect was specific, as other monoclonal antibodies--such as antibody to histocompatibility locus antigen (HLA) class II or anti-T-cell natural killer (TNK) target--directed at other surface structures strongly expressed on activated cultured T4+ cells, did not prevent LAV infection. Direct virus neutralization by monoclonal antibodies was also ruled out. These results strongly support the view that a surface molecule directly involved in cellular functions acts as, or is related to, the receptor for a human retrovirus.     

猪繁殖和呼吸综合征病毒福建毒株ORF5的序列分析及原核表达

根据猪繁殖和呼吸综合征病毒(PRRSV)已发表的核苷酸序列,设计了一对特异性引物(p1/p2),用RT-PCR扩增PRRSV福建毒株FJ-1的全长糖基化囊膜蛋白基因(ORF5),将扩增产物连接到pUCm-T载体并转化大肠杆菌DH10B,筛选阳性重组质粒进行序列测定与分析.再设计另一条引物(p3)与p2从重组载体pUCm-T-ORF5中扩增出缺失了N端30个氨基酸残基的tGP5的编码序列tORF5,克隆入表达载体pGEX-4T-3后在大肠杆菌中表达.结果表明,FJ-1毒株ORF5基因为603 bp,编码200个氨基酸,与北美型参考毒株VR-2332、CH-1a及欧洲型参考毒株LV的氨基酸同源性分别为87%、89%和53%,推定福建毒株FJ-1属于北美型毒株.原核表达产物经过SDS-PAGE及Western Blot分析,证实为GP5与谷胱甘肽转移酶(GST)的融合蛋白.分子量为41 kDa.表达量约占菌体蛋白的15%,主要以包涵体形式存在.     

Specific interaction between HPV-16 E1-E4 and cytokeratins results in collapse of the epithelial cell intermediate filament network.

The human papillomaviruses (HPV) are associated specifically with epithelial lesions, ranging from benign warts to invasive carcinoma. The virus encodes three late proteins, which are produced only in terminally differentiating keratinocytes, two of which are structural components of the virion. The third, E1-E4, is derived primarily from the E4 open reading frame, which represents a region of maximal divergence between different HPV types. E1-E4 does not seem to be a component of the virus particle or to be needed for transformation in vitro, but accumulates in the cytoplasm, where in certain benign lesions it can comprise 20-30% of total cell protein. We show here that expression of the HPV-16 E1-E4 protein in human keratinocytes (the natural host cell for HPV infection) results in the total collapse of the cytokeratin matrix. Tubulin and actin networks are unaffected by E1-E4, as are the nuclear lamins.     

Increased viral pathogenicity after insertion of a 28S ribosomal RNA sequence into the haemagglutinin gene of an influenza virus

The haemagglutinin glycoprotein HA of influenza viruses is responsible for the attachment of the virus to neuraminic acid-containing receptors at the cell surface and subsequent penetration by triggering fusion of the viral envelope with cellular membranes. To express full activity of the newly synthesized precursor, HA has to be modified by post-translational proteolytic cleavage into the polypeptides HA1 and HA2 by cellular enzymes. If proteases suitable for cleavage are not present in the host cell, the resulting virus particles are non-infectious. During adaptation of the apathogenic influenza virus A/turkey/Oregon/71 to chicken embryo cells, which are not permissive for HA cleavage, we obtained an infectious virus variant with increased pathogenicity. Sequence analysis revealed that during adaptation 54 nucleotides were inserted into the HA gene; their sequence corresponds to a region of the 28S ribosomal RNA. This insertion is probably responsible for increased cleavability of HA, as well as for infectivity and pathogenicity of the adapted virus.     

Spike--nucleocapsid interaction in Semliki Forest virus reconstructed using network antibodies

Using in vitro immunization, we have reconstructed three consecutive steps of an idiotype network to show that the nucleocapsid of Semliki Forest virus contains a specific 'receptor' for the cytoplasmic tail of the E2 spike glycoprotein. This interaction could be the basis for the highly selective inclusion of viral glycoproteins--and exclusion of host cell surface proteins--during virus budding.     

Dual E1 activation systems for ubiquitin differentially regulate E2 enzyme charging

Modification of proteins with ubiquitin or ubiquitin-like proteins (UBLs) by means of an E1-E2-E3 cascade controls many signalling networks. Ubiquitin conjugation involves adenylation and thioesterification of the carboxy-terminal carboxylate of ubiquitin by the E1-activating enzyme Ube1 (Uba1 in yeast), followed by ubiquitin transfer to an E2-conjugating enzyme through a transthiolation reaction. Charged E2s function with E3s to ubiquitinate substrates. It is currently thought that Ube1/Uba1 is the sole E1 for charging of E2s with ubiquitin in animals and fungi. Here we identify a divergent E1 in vertebrates and sea urchin, Uba6, which specifically activates ubiquitin but not other UBLs in vitro and in vivo. Human Uba6 and Ube1 have distinct preferences for E2 charging in vitro, and their specificity depends in part on their C-terminal ubiquitin-fold domains, which recruit E2s. In tissue culture cells, Uba6 is required for charging a previously uncharacterized Uba6-specific E2 (Use1), whereas Ube1 is required for charging the cell-cycle E2s Cdc34A and Cdc34B. Our data reveal unexpected complexity in the pathways that control the conjugation of ubiquitin, in which dual E1s orchestrate the charging of distinct cohorts of E2s.     

Cellular immortalization by a cDNA clone encoding the transformation-associated phosphoprotein p53

Malignant transformation of primary cells requires at least two distinct and characteristic alterations in cellular behaviour. The first, cellular immortality, can be induced by chemical carcinogens or by cloned oncogenes such as polyoma large T (ref. 4), adenovirus early region 1A (E1A) or the oncogene from avian (MC29) myelocytomatosis virus, v-myc. Cells whose in vitro life-span has been extended by these procedures can be fully transformed by transfection with oncogenes belonging to a different complementation group, including genes of the ras family, adenovirus E1b and polyoma virus middle T (refs 4, 5). The unstable cellular phosphoprotein p53 is frequently present at elevated levels in transformed cells and is stabilized by the formation of complexes with simian virus 40 (SV40) large T or adenovirus E1b 57K protein. Although several reports have associated p53 with cell proliferation, its role remains obscure. We have cloned complementary DNA sequences encoding murine p53 and report here that transfection of p53 expression constructs into cells of finite lifespan in vitro results in cellular immortality and susceptibility to transformation by a ras oncogene.     

Glycoprotein C of herpes simplex virus 1 acts as a receptor for the C3b complement component on infected cells

Receptors for the Fc portion of immunoglobulins or for the third component of complement (C3) are present on a variety of circulating and fixed tissue cells including granulocytes, monocytes, lymphocytes and glomerular epithelial cells. Cells which lack Fc receptors may express them after infection by herpes simplex virus (HSV)-1, HSV-2, cytomegalovirus or varicella zoster virus. We recently reported that infection by HSV-1 induces both Fc and C3 receptors on human endothelial cells. Glycoprotein E of HSV-1 has been shown to function as an Fc receptor. We now demonstrate that glycoprotein C (gC) of HSV-1 functions as a C3b receptor. This receptor appears following HSV-1, but not HSV-2, infection. Detection of the C3b receptor is blocked by monoclonal antibodies to glycoprotein C (gC) of HSV-1, but not by monoclonal antibodies to other HSV-1 glycoproteins. In addition, the MP mutant of HSV-1, which lacks gC, fails to express a C3b receptor. These results assign a new function of gC of HSV-1 and demonstrate potentially important differences between HSV-1 and HSV-2 glycoproteins.     

牛病毒性腹泻病毒E2蛋白的克隆、 表达及多克隆抗体制备

利用原核系统表达牛病毒性腹泻病毒（BVDV）E2蛋白, 制备鼠源多克隆抗体. 通过MDBK细胞增殖病毒, 提取RNA, RT-PCR扩增E2全长基因, 进行生物信息学分析后设计截短引物, 构建优化表达载体pET-30-E2, 转化BL21, 用异丙基-β-D-硫代吡喃半乳糖苷(IPTG)诱导蛋白表达; 用SDS-PAGE电泳分析蛋白表达, 纯化蛋白联合弗氏佐剂免疫小鼠; 用酶联免疫吸附测定(ELISA)法测定抗体效价水平, 用免疫印迹(WB)和免疫荧光(IFA)法验证抗体特异性. 结果表明: E2基因在大肠杆菌中成功表达, 蛋白大小为32 000, 不可溶形式表达, 表达量为0.4 mg/mL; 多克隆抗体效价为1∶256 000, 可特异性结合重组蛋白及细胞中的病毒.     

Structural basis of West Nile virus neutralization by a therapeutic antibody

West Nile virus is a mosquito-borne flavivirus closely related to the human epidemic-causing dengue, yellow fever and Japanese encephalitis viruses. In establishing infection these icosahedral viruses undergo endosomal membrane fusion catalysed by envelope glycoprotein rearrangement of the putative receptor-binding domain III (DIII) and exposure of the hydrophobic fusion loop. Humoral immunity has an essential protective function early in the course of West Nile virus infection. Here, we investigate the mechanism of neutralization by the E16 monoclonal antibody that specifically binds DIII. Structurally, the E16 antibody Fab fragment engages 16 residues positioned on four loops of DIII, a consensus neutralizing epitope sequence conserved in West Nile virus and distinct in other flaviviruses. The E16 epitope protrudes from the surface of mature virions in three distinct environments, and docking studies predict Fab binding will leave five-fold clustered epitopes exposed. We also show that E16 inhibits infection primarily at a step after viral attachment, potentially by blocking envelope glycoprotein conformational changes. Collectively, our results suggest that a vaccine strategy targeting the dominant DIII epitope may elicit safe and effective immune responses against flaviviral diseases.     

汉滩病毒囊膜糖蛋白g2基因重组腺病毒的构建与表达

获得汉滩病毒G2 基因 ,构建其重组腺病毒并在HEK2 93细胞中包装表达 ,为研究汉滩病毒基因疫苗提供了实验基础。设计引物采用PCR从含汉滩病毒 \|76 1 1 8株M基因的M5 6质粒扩增出糖蛋白G2 基因片段 ,并将其克隆入腺病毒载体Adeno XviralDNA ,筛选获得重组腺病毒DNA ,转染HEK2 93细胞 ,包装、扩增后得到汉滩病毒G2 基因重组腺病毒原种 ;并在感染细胞内初步表达 ,用ELISA检测表达产物。得到了含汉滩病毒G2 基因的重组腺病毒 ,其滴度约为 1 0 10 pfu/mL ,同时在感染的HEK2 93细胞中检测到汉滩病毒糖蛋白G2 的表达。含汉滩病毒糖蛋白G2 基因重组腺病毒的成功构建 ,为研究汉滩病毒基因疫苗提供了实验基础     

Decreased virulence of recombinant vaccinia virus expression vectors is associated with a thymidine kinase-negative phenotype

Recent advances in molecular genetics have led to the possibility of using large DNA viruses, such as vaccinia virus, as a biological delivery system for immunizing man against unrelated disease-causing agents. When live vaccinia virus recombinants expressing the hepatitis B virus surface antigen (HBsAg), the influenza A virus haemagglutinin, the herpes simplex virus (HSV) type 1 D glycoprotein, the rabies virus G glycoprotein and the vesicular stomatitis virus G glycoprotein were used for immunization, animals were protected upon challenge with the appropriate pathogenic agent. A major concern with using such vaccines, however, stems from the previously documented vaccinia virus-associated post-immunizing complications. We present here experimental evidence that thymidine kinase-negative (TK-) vaccinia virus recombinants, constructed by inserting a variety of DNA coding sequences into the vaccinia virus tk gene, are less pathogenic for mice than wild-type virus.     

微盘电极上线性扫描伏安法动力学研究(英文)

研究微盘电极上中等扫速下，准可逆电化学反应的伏安行为。推导适合于多种电化学技术的一般方程。该方程可用于线性扫描伏安法，循环伏安法，阶梯扫描伏安法以及脉冲伏安法等。运用该方程详细地研究了微盘电极上准可逆、不可逆波线性扫描伏安曲线特性