Complete genome sequence of a multiple drug resistant Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi CT18.

Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi (S. typhi) is the aetiological agent of typhoid fever, a serious invasive bacterial disease of humans with an annual global burden of approximately 16 million cases, leading to 600,000 fatalities. Many S. enterica serovars actively invade the mucosal surface of the intestine but are normally contained in healthy individuals by the local immune defence mechanisms. However, S. typhi has evolved the ability to spread to the deeper tissues of humans, including liver, spleen and bone marrow. Here we have sequenced the 4,809,037-base pair (bp) genome of a S. typhi (CT18) that is resistant to multiple drugs, revealing the presence of hundreds of insertions and deletions compared with the Escherichia coli genome, ranging in size from single genes to large islands. Notably, the genome sequence identifies over two hundred pseudogenes, several corresponding to genes that are known to contribute to virulence in Salmonella typhimurium. This genetic degradation may contribute to the human-restricted host range for S. typhi. CT18 harbours a 218,150-bp multiple-drug-resistance incH1 plasmid (pHCM1), and a 106,516-bp cryptic plasmid (pHCM2), which shows recent common ancestry with a virulence plasmid of Yersinia pestis.     

Herpesvirus saimiri encodes homologues of G protein-coupled receptors and cyclins.

Herpesvirus saimiri (HVS) is a T-lymphotropic gammaherpesvirus which establishes asymptomatic infections in its natural host the squirrel monkey (Saimiri sciureus), but which causes fatal lymphoproliferative diseases in other New World primates. Sequencing studies show HVS is closely related to the human B-lymphotropic gammaherpesvirus Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). However, despite the general colinearity between the genomes of HVS and EBV, HVS contains genes not found in EBV or in the genomes of any of the other sequenced herpesviruses. We have identified two genes, occurring in a region of divergence between HVS and EBV, that have cellular homologues. One of these, ECRF3, is homologous to the genes encoding the human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) and cellular G protein-coupled receptor family of proteins. The other HVS gene, ECLF2, is homologous to the genes encoding cellular cyclins and to our knowledge is the first reported example of a viral cyclin. The presence of G protein-coupled receptor and cyclin homologues in HVS suggests that these genes may be important in the regulation of viral and cellular processes during productive and/or latent infection of host cells, and in particular may be of relevance in the transformation and rapid proliferation of T cells during HVS infections of hosts susceptible to HVS-induced lymphoproliferative diseases.     

Genome duplication in the teleost fish Tetraodon nigroviridis reveals the early vertebrate proto-karyotype

Tetraodon nigroviridis is a freshwater puffer fish with the smallest known vertebrate genome. Here, we report a draft genome sequence with long-range linkage and substantial anchoring to the 21 Tetraodon chromosomes. Genome analysis provides a greatly improved fish gene catalogue, including identifying key genes previously thought to be absent in fish. Comparison with other vertebrates and a urochordate indicates that fish proteins have diverged markedly faster than their mammalian homologues. Comparison with the human genome suggests approximately 900 previously unannotated human genes. Analysis of the Tetraodon and human genomes shows that whole-genome duplication occurred in the teleost fish lineage, subsequent to its divergence from mammals. The analysis also makes it possible to infer the basic structure of the ancestral bony vertebrate genome, which was composed of 12 chromosomes, and to reconstruct much of the evolutionary history of ancient and recent chromosome rearrangements leading to the modern human karyotype.     

Host genome surveillance for retrotransposons by transposon-derived proteins

Transposable elements and their remnants constitute a substantial fraction of eukaryotic genomes. Host genomes have evolved defence mechanisms, including chromatin modifications and RNA interference, to regulate transposable elements. Here we describe a genome surveillance mechanism for retrotransposons by transposase-derived centromeric protein CENP-B homologues of the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe. CENP-B homologues of S. pombe localize at and recruit histone deacetylases to silence Tf2 retrotransposons. CENP-Bs also repress solo long terminal repeats (LTRs) and LTR-associated genes. Tf2 elements are clustered into 'Tf' bodies, the organization of which depends on CENP-Bs that display discrete nuclear structures. Furthermore, CENP-Bs prevent an 'extinct' Tf1 retrotransposon from re-entering the host genome by blocking its recombination with extant Tf2, and silence and immobilize a Tf1 integrant that becomes sequestered into Tf bodies. Our results reveal a probable ancient retrotransposon surveillance pathway important for host genome integrity, and highlight potential conflicts between DNA transposons and retrotransposons, major transposable elements believed to have greatly moulded the evolution of genomes.     

辅酶A依赖的丙醛脱氢酶基因的克隆、表达及其对宿主菌生长的影响

辅酶A依赖的丙醛脱氢酶(Pdu P)是以甘油为底物催化合成聚3-羟基丙酸的关键酶。本研究从鼠伤寒沙门氏菌基因组中PCR扩增了pdu P基因,构建表达载体后转化肺炎克雷伯氏菌,得到重组菌K.p(p ET-pk-pdu P)。SDS-PAGE显示Pdu P实现了高效表达。生长曲线表明重组菌延迟进入平稳期,生物量较空质粒对照菌提高了24.68%,1,3-丙二醇和2,3-丁二醇的产量分别达到16.58 g/L和15.68 g/L,甘油转化率比空质粒对照菌和原代菌分别提高了40.62%和34.02%。上述结果表明,过表达pdu P重排了代谢流量,促进了菌体生长。     

Sequencing and comparison of yeast species to identify genes and regulatory elements

Identifying the functional elements encoded in a genome is one of the principal challenges in modern biology. Comparative genomics should offer a powerful, general approach. Here, we present a comparative analysis of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae based on high-quality draft sequences of three related species (S. paradoxus, S. mikatae and S. bayanus). We first aligned the genomes and characterized their evolution, defining the regions and mechanisms of change. We then developed methods for direct identification of genes and regulatory motifs. The gene analysis yielded a major revision to the yeast gene catalogue, affecting approximately 15% of all genes and reducing the total count by about 500 genes. The motif analysis automatically identified 72 genome-wide elements, including most known regulatory motifs and numerous new motifs. We inferred a putative function for most of these motifs, and provided insights into their combinatorial interactions. The results have implications for genome analysis of diverse organisms, including the human.     

A combined algorithm for genome-wide prediction of protein function

The availability of over 20 fully sequenced genomes has driven the development of new methods to find protein function and interactions. Here we group proteins by correlated evolution, correlated messenger RNA expression patterns and patterns of domain fusion to determine functional relationships among the 6,217 proteins of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Using these methods, we discover over 93,000 pairwise links between functionally related yeast proteins. Links between characterized and uncharacterized proteins allow a general function to be assigned to more than half of the 2,557 previously uncharacterized yeast proteins. Examples of functional links are given for a protein family of previously unknown function, a protein whose human homologues are implicated in colon cancer and the yeast prion Sup35.     

引起人非典型性肺炎的冠状病毒基因组与其它冠状病毒基因组的初步比较

一种在世界范围内突然爆发的致命流行病——急性呼吸窘迫综合症(SARS)击倒了数干人，一种全新的冠状病毒被认为是其病原．5个SARS相关冠状病毒的全基因组序列已经完成．我们进行了SARS相关冠状病毒和其它冠状病毒的基因组进化分析和序列比较，结果显示：1．SARS相关冠状病毒不直接来自于任何已知的冠状病毒；2．E蛋白的基因可能是在近期从其它病毒横向转移到SARS病毒中来的；3．Sl和S2基因发生了较大范围的缺失或插入突变．这些基因横向转移和突变改变了SARS相关病毒的表面结构和抗原性，极有可能是导致其获得侵染人类细胞的主要原因．     

伤寒沙门菌非编码RNA ArpH表达特征及功能初探

通过研究σ因子和RNase对伤寒沙门菌非编码RNA ArpH表达的影响，并结合全基因组芯片的结果，初步探讨ArpH对细菌侵袭力和胞内生存力的影响.应用qRT-PCR检测了rpoE和rpoS对ArpH转录的影响，以及RNase III、RNase G和RNase E分别对ArpH降解的影响.另外还利用全基因组芯片技术对ArpH高表达菌株在氧应激下的基因表达谱进行分析.最后观察了ArpH对伤寒沙门菌侵袭力的影响和对胞内生存力的作用.结果显示，rpoE在酸、氧及高渗应激下、rpoS在氧应激下调节ArpH的转录.细菌中RNase III主要参与了ArpH的降解.氧应激下高表达ArpH后，基因表达上调的有89个，基因表达下调的有24个.ArpH高表达可以减弱伤寒沙门菌对上皮细胞的侵袭力，并能增强细菌的胞内生存力.     

伤寒沙门菌非编码RNA AsrC表达特性及功能初步研究

非编码RNA在细菌的各种生命活动中都发挥着重要的功能.针对伤寒沙门菌非编码RNA AsrC,对其转录和降解特性及其所具有的功能进行初步研究.首先使用Northern blot和qRT-PCR的方法检测了σ因子rpoE和rpoS对AsrC转录的影响,分析了使用利福平抑制细菌RNA合成的情况下,RNase E和RNase III对AsrC降解的影响.其次使用AsrC缺陷株和高表达菌株分析细菌在酸、氧、高渗应激条件下的生长情况.再者通过全基因组芯片技术,研究AsrC高表达菌株基因表达的变化.进一步研究AsrC在细菌侵袭和巨噬细胞胞内生存力中的作用.结果显示,rpoE在酸应激下、rpoS在高渗应激下调节AsrC的转录.细菌中RNase E主要参与了AsrC的降解.高表达AsrC后,有40个基因表达上调,23个基因表达下调.AsrC高表达可以增强伤寒沙门菌对于上皮细胞的侵袭力,并且可以减弱细菌的胞内生存和增殖力.     

Comparative analysis of whole-genome sequences of Streptococcus suis

The recent outbreak of Streptococcus suis in some districts of Sichuan Province in China has caused over 30 deaths and more than 200 infections in human be-ings[1]. Streptococcus suis is a Gram-positive, faculta-tively anaerobic bacterium, a peculiar path…     

X-ray structure of a ClC chloride channel at 3.0 A reveals the molecular basis of anion selectivity.

The ClC chloride channels catalyse the selective flow of Cl- ions across cell membranes, thereby regulating electrical excitation in skeletal muscle and the flow of salt and water across epithelial barriers. Genetic defects in ClC Cl- channels underlie several familial muscle and kidney diseases. Here we present the X-ray structures of two prokaryotic ClC Cl- channels from Salmonella enterica serovar typhimurium and Escherichia coli at 3.0 and 3.5 A, respectively. Both structures reveal two identical pores, each pore being formed by a separate subunit contained within a homodimeric membrane protein. Individual subunits are composed of two roughly repeated halves that span the membrane with opposite orientations. This antiparallel architecture defines a selectivity filter in which a Cl- ion is stabilized by electrostatic interactions with alpha-helix dipoles and by chemical coordination with nitrogen atoms and hydroxyl groups. These findings provide a structural basis for further understanding the function of ClC Cl- channels, and establish the physical and chemical basis of their anion selectivity.     

Identification of pathways regulating cell size and cell-cycle progression by RNAi

Many high-throughput loss-of-function analyses of the eukaryotic cell cycle have relied on the unicellular yeast species Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Schizosaccharomyces pombe. In multicellular organisms, however, additional control mechanisms regulate the cell cycle to specify the size of the organism and its constituent organs. To identify such genes, here we analysed the effect of the loss of function of 70% of Drosophila genes (including 90% of genes conserved in human) on cell-cycle progression of S2 cells using flow cytometry. To address redundancy, we also targeted genes involved in protein phosphorylation simultaneously with their homologues. We identify genes that control cell size, cytokinesis, cell death and/or apoptosis, and the G1 and G2/M phases of the cell cycle. Classification of the genes into pathways by unsupervised hierarchical clustering on the basis of these phenotypes shows that, in addition to classical regulatory mechanisms such as Myc/Max, Cyclin/Cdk and E2F, cell-cycle progression in S2 cells is controlled by vesicular and nuclear transport proteins, COP9 signalosome activity and four extracellular-signal-regulated pathways (Wnt, p38betaMAPK, FRAP/TOR and JAK/STAT). In addition, by simultaneously analysing several phenotypes, we identify a translational regulator, eIF-3p66, that specifically affects the Cyclin/Cdk pathway activity.     

3种沼虾的16S rRNA基因序列分析

为从分子角度理解3种沼虾,即罗氏沼虾、日本沼虾和祁连沼虾的遗传差异,为沼虾资源的管理、保护和合理开发利用提供理论基础,采集了每种沼虾各2尾样本,采用PCR的方法扩增了其线粒体16S rRNA基因片断并测序。比对后共获得了3种沼虾的297 bp的16S rRNA片断序列,共检测到47个变异位点,总变异率为15.8%。3种沼虾的平均碱基含量分别为T(37.7%)、C(10.9%)、A(29.8%)和G(21.6%)。罗氏沼虾种内个体间序列差异为3%。祁连沼虾和日本沼虾种内个体间差异均为0.7%,且两者种间差异很小,为0～0.7%。罗氏沼虾与祁连沼虾、日本沼虾之间的序列差异在13.1%～14.8%之间,种间差异明显。系统进化树显示罗氏沼虾自成一枝,而日本沼虾和祁连沼虾共同构成另一枝,日本沼虾和祁连沼虾的遗传距离小于5%,结果提示日本沼虾和祁连沼虾有很近的亲缘关系,两者也许是亚种关系。     

Evolution of sex determination and the Y chromosome: SRY-related sequences in marsupials.

In mammals, testis determination is under the control of the testis-determining factor borne by the Y chromosome. SRY, a gene cloned from the sex-determining region of the human Y chromosome, has been equated with the testis-determining factor in man and mouse. We have used a human SRY probe to identify and clone related genes from the Y chromosome of two marsupial species. Comparisons of eutherian and metatherian Y-located SRY sequences suggest rapid evolution of these genes, especially outside the region encoding the DNA-binding HMG box. The SRY homologues, together with the mouse Ube1y homologues, are the first genes to be identified on the marsupial Y chromosome.     

Chronology and pattern of integration of tandem genomic islands associated with the tmRNA gene in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Escherichia coli</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Salmonella enterica</Emphasis>

tmRNA,a combination of a tRNA-related fragment and a small mRNA fragment,was confirmed as the integration site of genomic islands(GIs).Using sequence alignment and comparative genomics,68 GIs associated with tmRNA genes were identified among 13 genera of Enterobacteriaceae.Among them,53 GIs were found in Escherichia coli and Salmonella enterica.Among these 53 GIs,tandem GIs were verified in eight S.enterica and two E.coli chromosomes.The downstream regions of the tmRNA genes in most of the E.coli and S.enterica chromosomes include one GI or tandem GIs region and a remnant variable region distal to the tmRNA.The chronology of integration of tandem GIs into the genome indicated that GIs farther from the tmRNA were incorporated into the genome earlier than those nearer from the tmRNA.The integrases of the tmRNA gene-associated GIs can be further categorized into three subtypes:HP1 integrases,PhiCTX integrases,and P4 integrases,which are the most predominant.The GIs were first integrated into the chromosome by the P4 integrase,subsequently by the PhiCTX integrase,and finally by the HP1 integrase.Thus,the tmRNA gene is an important site for investigating the genetics and evolution of tandem GIs.     

水稻第6染色体S5区重叠群构建、基因注释与OS-APH的克隆分析

以通过图位克降所获得的Cosmid克降R2119序列信息为基础，构建了一个长为586kb的粳稻第6染色体S5座位的BAC重叠群（JS5-BC）。通过生物信息学方法，对JS5-BC进行了基因注释，确定该区域含有46个基因位点。经功能预测，JS5-BC重叠群中仔在3个主要的基因家族，分别是木葡聚糖岩藻糖基转移酶、脂酶和黄素氧化还原酶。JS5-BC中注释基因的一个显著特点是功能相关基因密集存在，如与植物细胞壁的合成代谢相父的3个基因、与呼吸链能量代谢的黄素氧化还原酶的4个基因等都是如此。为了验证基因注释的可靠性，克降了广亲和品种Cp17品种的OSAPH基因的cDNA，并检测了该基因的表达模式，为注释基因提供了分子证据。     

Genome-wide expression dynamics of a marine virus and host reveal features of co-evolution

Interactions between bacterial hosts and their viruses (phages) lead to reciprocal genome evolution through a dynamic co-evolutionary process. Phage-mediated transfer of host genes--often located in genome islands--has had a major impact on microbial evolution. Furthermore, phage genomes have clearly been shaped by the acquisition of genes from their hosts. Here we investigate whole-genome expression of a host and phage, the marine cyanobacterium Prochlorococcus MED4 and the T7-like cyanophage P-SSP7, during lytic infection, to gain insight into these co-evolutionary processes. Although most of the phage genome was linearly transcribed over the course of infection, four phage-encoded bacterial metabolism genes formed part of the same expression cluster, even though they are physically separated on the genome. These genes--encoding photosystem II D1 (psbA), high-light inducible protein (hli), transaldolase (talC) and ribonucleotide reductase (nrd)--are transcribed together with phage DNA replication genes and seem to make up a functional unit involved in energy and deoxynucleotide production for phage replication in resource-poor oceans. Also unique to this system was the upregulation of numerous genes in the host during infection. These may be host stress response genes and/or genes induced by the phage. Many of these host genes are located in genome islands and have homologues in cyanophage genomes. We hypothesize that phage have evolved to use upregulated host genes, leading to their stable incorporation into phage genomes and their subsequent transfer back to hosts in genome islands. Thus activation of host genes during infection may be directing the co-evolution of gene content in both host and phage genomes.     

Drosophila RNAi screen identifies host genes important for influenza virus replication

All viruses rely on host cell proteins and their associated mechanisms to complete the viral life cycle. Identifying the host molecules that participate in each step of virus replication could provide valuable new targets for antiviral therapy, but this goal may take several decades to achieve with conventional forward genetic screening methods and mammalian cell cultures. Here we describe a novel genome-wide RNA interference (RNAi) screen in Drosophila that can be used to identify host genes important for influenza virus replication. After modifying influenza virus to allow infection of Drosophila cells and detection of influenza virus gene expression, we tested an RNAi library against 13,071 genes (90% of the Drosophila genome), identifying over 100 for which suppression in Drosophila cells significantly inhibited or stimulated reporter gene (Renilla luciferase) expression from an influenza-virus-derived vector. The relevance of these findings to influenza virus infection of mammalian cells is illustrated for a subset of the Drosophila genes identified; that is, for three implicated Drosophila genes, the corresponding human homologues ATP6V0D1, COX6A1 and NXF1 are shown to have key functions in the replication of H5N1 and H1N1 influenza A viruses, but not vesicular stomatitis virus or vaccinia virus, in human HEK 293 cells. Thus, we have demonstrated the feasibility of using genome-wide RNAi screens in Drosophila to identify previously unrecognized host proteins that are required for influenza virus replication. This could accelerate the development of new classes of antiviral drugs for chemoprophylaxis and treatment, which are urgently needed given the obstacles to rapid development of an effective vaccine against pandemic influenza and the probable emergence of strains resistant to available drugs.