英国早期殖民扩张与民族国家发展

英国近代早期的殖民扩张 ,是同民族国家的形成与发展联系在一起的。英国民族国家形成时期的殖民扩张 ,是都铎“新君主制”和民族国家发展的伴随物 ,是大英帝国奠基的先导。这个漫长而曲折的发展过程经过了大约一个半世纪 ,构成英帝国前史。民族国家的利己性和排他性 ,驱使英国人反对包括罗马教皇、西班牙人、葡萄牙人、汉萨人等在内的外国势力对英格兰民族国家的束缚、限制与威胁 ;英国人把海外殖民扩张视为实现英格兰民族平等发展的神圣权利 ,他们在反对外国人的斗争中逐渐增强了民族意识和民族精神 ;打败西班牙人不但提高了英格兰民族的自信心 ,而且扫除了他们通向海外殖民扩张道路上的最大障碍 ,为斯图亚特王朝时期英国海外殖民贸易帝国的建立和发展准备了有利条件。     

马克思主义民族理论：解决中国民族问题的行动指南

不论是在新民主主义革命时期，还是在社会主义建设时期，马克思主义民族理论都是解决中国民族问题的行动指南。具有中国特色的解决民放问题的实践成果，来自中国共产党不同时期的领导集体深入的理论探索。同时也丰富和发展了马克思主义民族理论。正确的理论指导与中国实际的紧密结合，是中国共产党提高驾驭和解决民族问题能力的首要条件。     

从apple看语言文化内涵的差异性

语言是文化的表征，其产生、发展和演变本身就是一种文化现象。语言又是一种载体，它在漫长的发展演变历史过程中，积淀着，运载着某种特定的文化内涵。无论哪一个民族的语言，其发展和演变总是与该民族发展和演变的历史紧密联系，语言一方面要反映不同历史发展时期的政治、经济、军事、文化等活动，另一方面，为了适应不同历史时期的活动需要，人们总是不断赋予语言以新的含义，新的用法，如此经历了长时期的积累和沉淀之后，语言的文化内涵使越来越丰厚了．不同的语种，因其产生的文化土壤不同，积淀的文化因素各异，故不仅表现为音、形、…     

当代爱国主义的时代解读

爱国主义是一个历史范畴，在社会发展的不同阶段、不同时期有不同的具体内容。在当前的时代背景下解读中华爱国主义的基本精神，以振奋民族精神，实现中华民族的伟大复兴。     

西部城市发展对罗马帝国的重要影响

罗马帝国时期西部城市发展对帝国的稳定与发展产生了重要影响。第一,带动了罗马帝国经济的发展与繁荣;第二,扩大了统治者的阶级基础;第三,使帝国呈现统一性局面。     

论中国疆域最终形成的路径与模式

迄今为止,世界级前近代帝国在大国游戏中被淘汰出局后,其嫡传文化继承者能够凤凰涅磐且成功地重返世界大国之列者,惟有中国。与世界其他几个从大河流域崛起的世界级帝国的核心力量都是在帝国中心地带兴起,一旦灭亡,支撑着帝国的核心力量便随之冰消瓦解的情景不同,古代中国的世界级帝国均形成于中原地带的边缘,他们为中国链条式世界级帝国的形成提供了源源不断、前仆后继的能量。虽然这些帝国建立者出身的民族(族群)各不相同,但维系帝国链条运作的"大一统"思想、"天下观"理论、"华夷共祖"谱系等古代中国文化从来没有中断过,从而使得古代中国的各个世界级帝国之间具有内在的文化承继性与疆域连续性。     

蒙古贵田汗时期对外战争简析

蒙古帝国前期，有成吉思汗（1206－1227年）、窝阔台（1229－1241年）时期的对外扩张和远征，也有蒙哥（1251－1259年）、忽必烈（1260－1294年）时期的对外扩张和远征．唯有贵由（1246－1248年）时期没有发动大规模的对外战争．贵由时期的蒙古帝国对外战争情况如何？为什么没有发动大规模对外战争？下面作一简要分析．一、征服和统治世界的野心贵由汗统治时期，蒙古贵族要征服全世界、统治全世界的野心已暴自无遗．加集尼（1245—Iw年曾到达蒙古）在其亲身游历蒙古帝国后所著的《蒙古史》中多次提到这点．他在讲蒙古布区帝国兴起及皇帝、…     

谈中国服饰观念的现代转换

在介绍中国社会现代思想进程的基础上，分析了三个不同发展时期中的服饰观念，阐述了中国服饰的现代转换应基于我们民族的现代生存本身而创造性发展的观点。     

奥地利马克思主义民族理论的限度及其合理性调适

为解决奥匈帝国民族问题和国家的统一问题,奥地利马克思主义提出了他们的民族理论即"民族文化自治"。但是由于他们在政治上的折中立场,从而决定了他们的民族理论具有三个方面的限度:政治与文化之间的区分;社会民主党人的民主要求和传统奥匈帝国国家结构之间的矛盾以及现代国家领土原则和民族非地域原则之间的冲突。另一方面,奥地利马克思主义民族理论中所提出的民族与民主之间的关系,民族文化发展与少数民族的平等权利等问题却成为现代多民族国家发展中的主题。因此在全球化背景下通过对奥地利马克思主义民族理论的合理性调适,从而为解决当前民族问题提供了新的途径。     

浅析城市人文景观中的地域文化诸元素

人文景观是一个动态的发展过程，也面临着对原有地域性的延续和发展，以及通过再阐释获得现实和未来意义的新地域性的双重任务。地域文化的可持续发展是对民族文化的传承与发扬，历史文化记载了民族时代变迁的历史，不同时期的历史文化承载了不同的社会使命，构成了强大的人类文明，这同时也是人类民族自豪感的源泉。旅游城市地域文化不仅标志着一个民族或一个城市的繁荣，也展示着整个人类的精神文化发展不同阶段的历史风貌。     

汉光武庙与赤眉军的覆灭

位于宜阳县三乡村的光武庙是东汉明帝即位后下诏兴建的皇家庙院。光武帝刘秀在此降服了声势浩大的赤眉起义军十万余众，从此奠定了东汉王朝二百余年的帝王基业。该庙是降伏赤眉军这一重大历史事件的标志性建筑。     

Genetic evidence for Near-Eastern origins of European cattle

The limited ranges of the wild progenitors of many of the primary European domestic species point to their origins further east in Anatolia or the fertile crescent. The wild ox (Bos primigenius), however, ranged widely and it is unknown whether it was domesticated within Europe as one feature of a local contribution to the farming economy. Here we examine mitochondrial DNA control-region sequence variation from 392 extant animals sampled from Europe, Africa and the Near East, and compare this with data from four extinct British wild oxen. The ancient sequences cluster tightly in a phylogenetic analysis and are clearly distinct from modern cattle. Network analysis of modern Bos taurus identifies four star-like clusters of haplotypes, with intra-cluster diversities that approximate to that expected from the time depth of domestic history. Notably, one of these clusters predominates in Europe and is one of three encountered at substantial frequency in the Near East. In contrast, African diversity is almost exclusively composed of a separate haplogroup, which is encountered only rarely elsewhere. These data provide strong support for a derived Near-Eastern origin for European cattle.     

克里米亚战争的经济根源

关于克里米亚战争的原因，国内外史学界普遍认为，是欧洲列强争夺欧洲和近东霸权的斗争引起了这场战争，实际上，欧洲列强，特别是英俄两国在近东的经济冲突，是克里米亚战争的经济根源或根本原因。     

Earliest date for milk use in the Near East and southeastern Europe linked to cattle herding

The domestication of cattle, sheep and goats had already taken place in the Near East by the eighth millennium bc. Although there would have been considerable economic and nutritional gains from using these animals for their milk and other products from living animals-that is, traction and wool-the first clear evidence for these appears much later, from the late fifth and fourth millennia bc. Hence, the timing and region in which milking was first practised remain unknown. Organic residues preserved in archaeological pottery have provided direct evidence for the use of milk in the fourth millennium in Britain, and in the sixth millennium in eastern Europe, based on the delta(13)C values of the major fatty acids of milk fat. Here we apply this approach to more than 2,200 pottery vessels from sites in the Near East and southeastern Europe dating from the fifth to the seventh millennia bc. We show that milk was in use by the seventh millennium; this is the earliest direct evidence to date. Milking was particularly important in northwestern Anatolia, pointing to regional differences linked with conditions more favourable to cattle compared to other regions, where sheep and goats were relatively common and milk use less important. The latter is supported by correlations between the fat type and animal bone evidence.     

清代西部边疆土兵的发展与衰亡

清朝建立之初为了尽快实现全国的统一,大量征调边疆的土兵参与政府组织的军事行动,土兵制度日渐完善。与此同时,随着统一多民族国家的日益巩固,清政府建立起了一个强大而有效的中央集权的国家机器,又由于土司制度在总体上已经不能适应统一多民族国家的发展,清政府便开始进行大规模的改土归流。改土归流之后,和土司制度紧密相连的土兵制度也就渐渐走向衰亡。     

Analysis of the matrilineal genetic structure of population in the early Iron Age from Tarim Basin, Xinjiang, China

Ancient mtDNA data of human remains were analyzed from four early Iron Age Tarim Basin sites （Yuansha, Zaghunluq, Sampula and Niya） in the southern Silk Road region. Haplogroup distributions show that ancient Tarim Basin population was comprised of well-differentiated Western and Eastern matrilineal lineages. Some West lineage of Tarim Basin population originated from Near East and Iran region. Of the East lineages, North and Northeast Asia originated lineages were the main components, and a few Southeast Asian lineages also existed, which indicated a more extensive origin and a more complex admixture. The genetic structure of ancient Tarim Basin population is relatively close to the modern populations of Xinjiang, which implied that the early Iron Age is an important period during the formation of the modern Xinjiang population.     

穿越东亚不同定义对流层顶质量和臭氧通量的分析

选取动力学和热力学定义的对流层顶作为平流层和对流层之间的分界,并利用等熵坐标下的Wei公式对东亚地区穿越对流层顶的质量和臭氧通量进行了分析,结果发现对流层顶的选择对于研究平流层与对流层交换方面的作用至关重要.东亚地区质量和臭氧通量交换在整体上具有明显的年代际变化特征,1958～2001年近44a的通量交换距平变化可以分为3个比较稳定的时段:即1958～1971,1972～1985和1986～2001年.在这3个时段中,通量交换距平分布表现为"负正负"的变化趋势,说明在东亚地区质量和臭氧净通量交换情况为先增强后减弱.东亚地区平流层和对流层之间质量和臭氧交换正距平区在东北平原和华北平原附近经历了一个逐渐增强的变化过程,表明这些区域在东亚地区平流层和对流层之间的质量和臭氧通量交换中扮演着越来越重要的角色.     

Mitochondrial DNA analysis of Bronze Age horses recovered from Chifeng region, Inner Mongolia, China

In this study, mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) analysis was carried out on 9 Bronze Age horses recovered from Dashanqian and Jinggouzi archaeological sites in Chifeng region, Inner Mongolia. China to explore the origin of Chinese domestic horses. Both mtDNA 16S rRNA gene and control region (D-loop) fragments of ancient horses were amplified and sequenced. The analysis of the highly conservative 16S rRNA gene sequences indicated that the burial environment of Chifeng region is suitable for the preservation of ancient DNA (aDNA). Combing 465 mtDNA D-loop sequences representing different breeds from East Asia, Central Asia, Near East and Europe, we constructed a phylogenetic network to investigate the relationship between ancient and modern horses. The phylogenetic network showed that the 9 horses were distributed into different modern horse clusters which were closely related to them representing a certain geographical distribution. Our results showed that the maternal genetic line of the ancient horses in Chifeng region was highly diversified, which contributed to the gene pool of modern domestic horses and suggested a complex origin of domestic horses in China.     

Mitochondrial DNA analysis of Bronze Age horses recovered from Chifeng region, Inner Mongolia, China

In this study, mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) analysis was carried out on 9 Bronze Age horses recovered from Dashanqian and Jinggouzi archaeological sites in Chifeng region, Inner Mongolia. China to explore the origin of Chinese domestic horses. Both mtDNA 16S rRNA gene and control region (D-loop) fragments of ancient horses were amplified and sequenced. The analysis of the highly conservative 16S rRNA gene sequences indicated that the burial environment of Chifeng region is suitable for the preservation of ancient DNA (aDNA). Combing 465 mtDNA D-loop sequences representing different breeds from East Asia, Central Asia, Near East and Europe, we constructed a phylogenetic network to investigate the relationship between ancient and modern horses. The phylogenetic network showed that the 9 horses were distributed into different modern horse clusters which were closely related to them representing a certain geographical distribution. Our results showed that the maternal genetic line of the ancient horses in Chifeng region was highly diversified, which contributed to the gene pool of modern domestic horses and suggested a complex origin of domestic horses in China.