阿利效应及其对生物入侵和自然保护中小种群管理的启示

目前人类活动导致的生境破碎化，对生物多样性有着极大威胁. 生境破碎化后出现许多小种群，小种群很容易受到阿利效应的影响而加速灭绝；外来物种在其入侵过程中也存在着阿利效应，阿利效应对生物入侵的影响已引起国际生态学界的关注. 介绍了阿利效应的定义、作用方式及影响因素. 通过对相关案例的分析，得出外来物种在入侵初期会因为繁殖困难、密度低或周围环境等原因存在阿利效应；阿利效应影响物种的入侵速度、入侵策略和在入侵地区的生存. 由于阿利效应的影响，濒危物种可能因为种群大小处于临界点以下而趋于灭绝. 针对这些情况总结了阿利效应对入侵物种防治和濒危物种保护中小种群管理的启示.     

环境容量变化对物种多度影响的研究——以天津七里海湿地为例

采用理论研究与实践检验相结合、理论分析与数值模拟相结合的方法,提出了环境容量变化对物种多度影响的模式,以天津七里海湿地为例,研究了集合动物种群的演化特点、物种灭绝的顺序与环境容量变化的关系.从理论上揭示了: 1) 当幂指数小于1,环境对集合种群的作用有利于其发展时,栖息地的破坏导致物种灭绝数目较少;当幂指数大于1时,剩余环境容量变小将导致最强及比它弱的若干物种灭绝,指数越大物种的灭绝数就越多.剩余环境容量越大,弱物种就越能在激烈的竞争中幸免灭绝;环境容量越小,弱物种面临灭绝的可能性就越大. 2) 物种的第三类灭绝机制和物种的协同进化、协同退化规律,反映了真实生态系统的复杂的灭绝情况.     

生物入侵对物种及遗传资源影响的经济评估

外来入侵物种对物种多样性产生的严重影响主要表现为排挤本地动植物，导致局部种群的消亡，造成局部高密度分布的稀有物种绝灭。外来入侵物种对遗传多样性的影响主要体现在：种群破碎化，导致遗传漂变和近亲交配；本地种与外来种杂交，造成遗传污染；局部野生、原始种群消失，导致遗传材料减少。在定性分析生物入侵对我国物种及遗传资源影响的基础上，笔者以政府有关部门统计数据和典型案例报道为主要信息源，评估了2000年生物入侵对物种的潜在保留价值和作物遗传资源造成的直接经济损失。结果表明：生物入侵对我国物种资源和作物遗传资源造成的经济损失分别为7104．14万元和11028．4万元。     

生境破碎对缙云卫矛种群遗传多样性的影响 (三峡地区资源环境生态研究)

生境破碎是许多物种生存的主要威胁,不同物种对生境破碎的反应不同,破碎后种群遗传多样性的信息对物种的保护具有较大的指导意义;缙云卫矛(Euonymus chloranthoides Yang)为重庆地区特有濒危植物,由于公路修建、旅游景点开发等因素的影响,缙云卫矛种群遭受了严重的生境破碎,居群小且处于隔离状态。对位于缙云山的该物种4个居群的遗传多样性分析表明:59.38%的遗传变异存在于居群内,40.62%的遗传变异存在于居群间,居群之间表现出较高水平的遗传分化,居群间遗传分化较大与该物种居群间的长期隔离,花粉、种子的扩散距离较近有关;遗传多样性最高的居群的多态位点百分率为64.58%,但最小的板子沟居群多态位点百分率仅29.17%,表明小居群不利于遗传多样性的维持。居群间的基因流(Nm)偏小,为0.730 9,难以抵消遗传漂变引起的居群间的遗传分化;聚类分析显示距离最近的居群首先聚在一起,表明该物种居群间遗传分化大小受空间距离远近影响。研究认为对该物种的有效保护应加强对小种群的就地保护,增强居群间的基因流,防止小居群遗传多样性的进一步丧失。     

气候变化对野生动物的影响

气候变化可能导致的生物多样性丧失、物种灭绝速度加快等问题不容忽视。由于气候变化,某些野生动物种群数量可能下降,食物链上相关生物的物候变化可能发生不同步变化等,气候变化对生物自然分布、繁殖与演化也可能有较大的影响。     

基于SNP分子标记的波叶杜鹃遗传特征分析

利用ddRAD-seq测序技术研究波叶杜鹃居群的遗传多样性与遗传结构，探讨种群演化历史，为其种质资源的保护利用和回归引种提供科学依据.研究结果表明，波叶杜鹃在居群水平上具有丰富的遗传多样性（He=0.226 7±0.002；π=0.241 0±0.003 2），居群间的遗传分化处于中等水平（FST=0.062 6）. AMOVA分析表明，总遗传变异中有98.42%的变异来自居群内，居群间的变异仅占1.58%.观测杂合度和期望杂合度分别为0.163 6±0.002和0.226 7±0.002，居群内近交系数（FIS）为0.222 0±0.022 2，所有居群均表现出杂合子缺失.聚类分析表明，6个居群可归类为2个类群，大多数个体（98.8%）谱系清晰.在近期的进化过程中，波叶杜鹃的有效种群大小（Ne）在持续下降，直到约1000年前.波叶杜鹃在物种和居群水平上，具有丰富的遗传多样性，进一步选择和育种利用的潜力较好.遗传分化水平中等，遗传变异主要来源于居群内.由于近期冰期气候环境的变化，再加上人为活动（发展旅游、基础设施建设等）导致波叶杜鹃的生存环境逐步恶化，使得该物种面临极高的灭绝风险.从对...     

基于细胞色素b基因研究两种石鸡的渐渗杂交

大石鸡是我国特有种,分布区狭窄;石鸡为广布种;两者都是我国北方干旱、半干旱荒漠环境的指示鸟类。利用线粒体DNA细胞色素b基因标记分析了大石鸡106个、石鸡48个样品,获得大石鸡单倍型9个,石鸡单倍型13个;在大石鸡种群中发现8个个体呈现石鸡基因模式（Hap-1和Hap-2）,但是在石鸡种群中没有发现大石鸡的基因模式,确认为石鸡和大石鸡之间的渐渗杂交;确认杂交带从六盘山脉向南到陇南地区的礼县一带,杂交带长度为400km,宽度为130km。结果表明目前渐渗杂交对大石鸡种群遗传多样性影响不大,在不长的进化时期内,对增加物种多样性是有好处的。建议进行长期野外监测,以便弄清发生渐渗杂交的野外生态学数据,为物种进化研究提供参考依据。     

地黄居群遗传多样性的ISSR分析

采用ISSR分子标记,对地黄（Rehnwmnia glutinosa）14个自然居群、1个栽培居群和属内近缘种5个居群的遗传多样性与遗传结构进行了研究．结果表明：地黄不同居群的平均多态位点百分率（PPB）为40．53％,平均Shannon多样性指数为0．1915,平均Nei’s基因多样性指数h为0．1253,遗传多样性水平较低．AMOVA分析结果和基因分化系数显示遗传变异主要发生在居群内,居群间的遗传分化显著,其遗传分化水平介于异交物种和自交物种之间．地黄居群间的基因交流程度有限（基因流为0．3784）．Mantel检测显示自然居群间遗传距离与地理距离之间没有明显相关性．推断营养繁殖占优势和受人类栽培活动的长期影响可能是导致地黄遗传多样性水平低、居群间遗传分化显著的主要原因．     

不同地区桐花树种群的分子遗传变异分析

利用RAPD和ISSR两种分子标记,对4个不同纬度桐花树种群的遗传多样性和遗传分化进行探讨,根据RAPD和ISSR数据计算遗传距离并进行聚类分析.结果表明,4个种群桐花树遗传变异性低,4个纬度桐花树种群分为南北两个类群,海南和广西为1个类群,广东和福建为1个类群.利用Shannon's指数计算4个种群的遗传多样性,广西种群多样性指数最高,福建种群最低.大部分的遗传变异存在于种群内(64%),小部分的遗传变异存在种群间(36%).本文同时探讨了种群遗传保护和引种策略.     

物种结构稳定性和对环境扰动的抗性

从物种的种群数量波动、生殖隔离和行为特征几方面描述了物种在进化过程中形成的结构稳定机制 ,同时从环境扰动的角度阐述了物种对干扰的适应性和抵抗力 .最后指出 ,在物种的进化过程中 ,同时存在着多因子的双重作用 ,自然选择仅仅只是其中的客观条件之一 ,而物种本身作为活的生命体 ,还具有维持自身稳定和适应环境的能力     

Genetic linkage of ecological specialization and reproductive isolation in pea aphids

The evolution of ecological specialization generates biological diversity and may lead to speciation. Genetic architecture can either speed or retard this process. If resource use and mate choice have a common genetic basis through pleiotropy or close linkage, the resulting genetic correlations can promote the joint evolution of specialization and reproductive isolation, facilitating speciation. Here we present a model of the role of genetic correlations in specialization and speciation, and test it by analysing the genetic architecture of key traits in two highly specialized host races of the pea aphid (Acyrthosiphon pisum pisum; Hemiptera : Aphididae). We found several complexes of pleiotropic or closely linked quantitative trait loci (QTL) that affect key traits in ways that would promote speciation: QTL with antagonistic effects on performance on the two hosts are linked to QTL that produce asortative mating (through habitat choice). This type of genetic architecture may be common in taxa that have speciated under divergent natural selection.     

Butterfly genome reveals promiscuous exchange of mimicry adaptations among species

The evolutionary importance of hybridization and introgression has long been debated. Hybrids are usually rare and unfit, but even infrequent hybridization can aid adaptation by transferring beneficial traits between species. Here we use genomic tools to investigate introgression in Heliconius, a rapidly radiating genus of neotropical butterflies widely used in studies of ecology, behaviour, mimicry and speciation. We sequenced the genome of Heliconius melpomene and compared it with other taxa to investigate chromosomal evolution in Lepidoptera and gene flow among multiple Heliconius species and races. Among 12,669 predicted genes, biologically important expansions of families of chemosensory and Hox genes are particularly noteworthy. Chromosomal organization has remained broadly conserved since the Cretaceous period, when butterflies split from the Bombyx (silkmoth) lineage. Using genomic resequencing, we show hybrid exchange of genes between three co-mimics, Heliconius melpomene, Heliconius timareta and Heliconius elevatus, especially at two genomic regions that control mimicry pattern. We infer that closely related Heliconius species exchange protective colour-pattern genes promiscuously, implying that hybridization has an important role in adaptive radiation.     

Host shift to an invasive plant triggers rapid animal hybrid speciation

Speciation in animals is almost always envisioned as the split of an existing lineage into an ancestral and a derived species. An alternative speciation route is homoploid hybrid speciation in which two ancestral taxa give rise to a third, derived, species by hybridization without a change in chromosome number. Although theoretically possible it has been regarded as rare and hence of little importance in animals. On the basis of molecular and chromosomal evidence, hybridization is the best explanation for the origin of a handful of extant diploid bisexual animal taxa. Here we report the first case in which hybridization between two host-specific animals (tephritid fruitflies) is clearly associated with the shift to a new resource. Such a hybrid host shift presents an ecologically robust scenario for animal hybrid speciation because it offers a potential mechanism for reproductive isolation through differential adaptation to a new ecological niche. The necessary conditions for this mechanism of speciation are common in parasitic animals, which represent much of animal diversity. The frequency of homoploid hybrid speciation in animals may therefore be higher than previously assumed.     

Reinforcement of pre-zygotic isolation and karyotype evolution in Agrodiaetus butterflies

The reinforcement model of evolution argues that natural selection enhances pre-zygotic isolation between divergent populations or species by selecting against unfit hybrids or costly interspecific matings. Reinforcement is distinguished from other models that consider the formation of reproductive isolation to be a by-product of divergent evolution. Although theory has shown that reinforcement is a possible mechanism that can lead to speciation, empirical evidence has been sufficiently scarce to raise doubts about the importance of reinforcement in nature. Agrodiaetus butterflies (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) exhibit unusual variability in chromosome number. Whereas their genitalia and other morphological characteristics are largely uniform, different species vary considerably in male wing colour, and provide a model system to study the role of reinforcement in speciation. Using comparative phylogenetic methods, we show that the sympatric distribution of 15 relatively young sister taxa of Agrodiaetus strongly correlates with differences in male wing colour, and that this pattern is most likely the result of reinforcement. We find little evidence supporting sympatric speciation: rather, in Agrodiaetus, karyotypic changes accumulate gradually in allopatry, prompting reinforcement when karyotypically divergent races come into contact.     

松材线虫与拟松材线虫种间杂交特性研究

选取来自中国、日本和美国的松材线虫(Bursaphelenchus xylophilus)4个虫株,以及中国的拟松材线虫(B.mucronatus)2个虫株进行生物学杂交和交配对象选择试验。结果表明:松材线虫和拟松材线虫的部分虫株可以发生种间杂交,正交总交配成功率为4.2%,反交总交配成功率为10%,反交成功率是正交的2倍。杂交整体发生率极低,杂交后代较难形成可持续的繁殖种群。采用松材线虫(简称Bx)/拟松材线虫(简称Bm)快速分子检测系统对杂交F1代幼虫进行分子鉴定,结果表明F1代幼虫既含有Bx分子标记也含有Bm分子标记。继代培养30 d后,杂交后代在基因型上表现出了不同趋向的分化,其中BxAN5♀×Bm JNL1 ♂、BxAN5 ♂×BmAN5♀和BxUSA ♂×Bm JNL1♀的杂交后代趋向于成为松材线虫占主导的种群,BxJNL5 ♂×BmJNL1♀的杂交后代趋向于成为拟松材线虫占主导的种群。在有种内交配资源存在情况下,无论松材线虫还是拟松材线虫均倾向于优先选择种内交配资源。研究表明松材线虫和拟松材线虫之间存在一定的生殖隔离,自然状态下种间交配可能会产生,但杂交后代较难形成可持续性繁殖的生殖后代。     

Incipient speciation by divergent adaptation and antagonistic epistasis in yeast

Establishing the conditions that promote the evolution of reproductive isolation and speciation has long been a goal in evolutionary biology. In ecological speciation, reproductive isolation between populations evolves as a by-product of divergent selection and the resulting environment-specific adaptations. The leading genetic model of reproductive isolation predicts that hybrid inferiority is caused by antagonistic epistasis between incompatible alleles at interacting loci. The fundamental link between divergent adaptation and reproductive isolation through genetic incompatibilities has been predicted, but has not been directly demonstrated experimentally. Here we empirically tested key predictions of speciation theory by evolving the initial stages of speciation in experimental populations of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. After replicate populations adapted to two divergent environments, we consistently observed the evolution of two forms of postzygotic isolation in hybrids: reduced rate of mitotic reproduction and reduced efficiency of meiotic reproduction. This divergent selection resulted in greater reproductive isolation than parallel selection, as predicted by the ecological speciation theory. Our experimental system allowed controlled comparison of the relative importance of ecological and genetic isolation, and we demonstrated that hybrid inferiority can be ecological and/or genetic in basis. Overall, our results show that adaptation to divergent environments promotes the evolution of reproductive isolation through antagonistic epistasis, providing evidence of a plausible common avenue to speciation and adaptive radiation in nature.     

Eutrophication causes speciation reversal in whitefish adaptive radiations

Species diversity can be lost through two different but potentially interacting extinction processes: demographic decline and speciation reversal through introgressive hybridization. To investigate the relative contribution of these processes, we analysed historical and contemporary data of replicate whitefish radiations from 17 pre-alpine European lakes and reconstructed changes in genetic species differentiation through time using historical samples. Here we provide evidence that species diversity evolved in response to ecological opportunity, and that eutrophication, by diminishing this opportunity, has driven extinctions through speciation reversal and demographic decline. Across the radiations, the magnitude of eutrophication explains the pattern of species loss and levels of genetic and functional distinctiveness among remaining species. We argue that extinction by speciation reversal may be more widespread than currently appreciated. Preventing such extinctions will require that conservation efforts not only target existing species but identify and protect the ecological and evolutionary processes that generate and maintain species.     

Adaptive evolution drives divergence of a hybrid inviability gene between two species of Drosophila

Speciation--the splitting of one species into two--occurs by the evolution of any of several forms of reproductive isolation between taxa, including the intrinsic sterility and inviability of hybrids. Abundant evidence shows that these hybrid fitness problems are caused by incompatible interactions between loci: new alleles that become established in one species are sometimes functionally incompatible with alleles at interacting loci from another species. However, almost nothing is known about the genes involved in such hybrid incompatibilities or the evolutionary forces that drive their divergence. Here we identify a gene that causes epistatic inviability in hybrids between two fruitfly species, Drosophila melanogaster and D. simulans. Our population genetic analysis reveals that this gene--which encodes a nuclear pore protein--evolved by positive natural selection in both species' lineages. These results show that a lethal hybrid incompatibility has evolved as a by-product of adaptive protein evolution.     

Speciation through sensory drive in cichlid fish

Theoretically, divergent selection on sensory systems can cause speciation through sensory drive. However, empirical evidence is rare and incomplete. Here we demonstrate sensory drive speciation within island populations of cichlid fish. We identify the ecological and molecular basis of divergent evolution in the cichlid visual system, demonstrate associated divergence in male colouration and female preferences, and show subsequent differentiation at neutral loci, indicating reproductive isolation. Evidence is replicated in several pairs of sympatric populations and species. Variation in the slope of the environmental gradients explains variation in the progress towards speciation: speciation occurs on all but the steepest gradients. This is the most complete demonstration so far of speciation through sensory drive without geographical isolation. Our results also provide a mechanistic explanation for the collapse of cichlid fish species diversity during the anthropogenic eutrophication of Lake Victoria.     

Interpretation of the biological species concept from interspecific hybridization of two Helicoverpa species

The biological species concept defines species in terms of interbreeding. Interbreeding between spe-cies is prevented by reproductive isolation mechanisms. Based on our results of interspecific hybridi-zation between Helicoverpa armigera and Helicoverpa assulta, reproductive isolation mechanisms of the two species are analyzed. A combination of prezygotic factors (absent sex attraction and physical incompatibility of the genitalia) and postzygotic factors (female absence and partial sterility in F1 hy-brids) causes reproductive isolation of the two species. In addition, the role of interspecific hybridiza-tion in speciation is discussed.