The use of space in living systems theory: Extensions and applications

Space, especially physical or geographical space, is a very important concept in living systems theory (LST). Indeed, along with time, it is included in the very definition of a concrete living system. But while time has its own critical subsystem in LST, space receives relative neglect. There is no space subsystem, but space is discussed in the boundary and supporter subsystems. The problem here is that discussion of the boundary emphasizes the regulation of matter-energy and information flows, while discussion of the supporter emphasizes vertical support rather than lateral spacing. The purpose of this paper is to rectify the relative neglect of spacing by unifying the scattered discussion of space in LST. After discussing space in the boundary and supporter subsystems at six levels (the organism, group, organization, community, society, and supranational), the paper extends and complements the literature of LST by discussing additional relevant literature on space, and by discussing possible applications at the six levels.