The genome sequence of Bacillus anthracis Ames and comparison to closely related bacteria

Bacillus anthracis is an endospore-forming bacterium that causes inhalational anthrax. Key virulence genes are found on plasmids (extra-chromosomal, circular, double-stranded DNA molecules) pXO1 (ref. 2) and pXO2 (ref. 3). To identify additional genes that might contribute to virulence, we analysed the complete sequence of the chromosome of B. anthracis Ames (about 5.23 megabases). We found several chromosomally encoded proteins that may contribute to pathogenicity--including haemolysins, phospholipases and iron acquisition functions--and identified numerous surface proteins that might be important targets for vaccines and drugs. Almost all these putative chromosomal virulence and surface proteins have homologues in Bacillus cereus, highlighting the similarity of B. anthracis to near-neighbours that are not associated with anthrax. By performing a comparative genome hybridization of 19 B. cereus and Bacillus thuringiensis strains against a B. anthracis DNA microarray, we confirmed the general similarity of chromosomal genes among this group of close relatives. However, we found that the gene sequences of pXO1 and pXO2 were more variable between strains, suggesting plasmid mobility in the group. The complete sequence of B. anthracis is a step towards a better understanding of anthrax pathogenesis.     

Aquatic parameters and life history observations of the Great Basin spadefoot toad in Utah

The distribution and breeding habitats of the Great Basin spadefoot toad ( Scaphiopus intermontanus ) were investigated in the Bonneville Basin of western Utah. The permanent springs and man-made reservoirs used for breeding were largely found below the 1600 m elevation. The pH's ranged between 7.2 and 10.4 and the total dissolved solids between 170 and 4800 mg/l. The springs were less alkaline than the rain-filled reservoirs. The lack of aquatic vegetation was a common feature of the reservoirs and most of the springs. Observations of breeding without rain are noted as well as the lack of breeding with rain. The snout – vent lengths of adult spadefoots are greater in the Bonneville Basin than in other parts of the Great Basin. Utilization of permanent water sources and stimuli for emergence and breeding, as well as the larger adult size of S. intermontanus in the Bonneville Basin, are discussed in relation to the diverse precipitation patterns, the sparseness of the water sources, and the Holocene history of the Great Basin.      

A soft solid surface on Titan as revealed by the Huygens Surface Science Package

The surface of Saturn's largest satellite--Titan--is largely obscured by an optically thick atmospheric haze, and so its nature has been the subject of considerable speculation and discussion. The Huygens probe entered Titan's atmosphere on 14 January 2005 and descended to the surface using a parachute system. Here we report measurements made just above and on the surface of Titan by the Huygens Surface Science Package. Acoustic sounding over the last 90 m above the surface reveals a relatively smooth, but not completely flat, surface surrounding the landing site. Penetrometry and accelerometry measurements during the probe impact event reveal that the surface was neither hard (like solid ice) nor very compressible (like a blanket of fluffy aerosol); rather, the Huygens probe landed on a relatively soft solid surface whose properties are analogous to wet clay, lightly packed snow and wet or dry sand. The probe settled gradually by a few millimetres after landing.     

Nucleic acid structure and expression of the human AIDS/lymphadenopathy retrovirus

The 9,213-nucleotide structure of the AIDS/lymphadenopathy virus has been determined from molecular clones representing the integrated provirus and viral RNA. The sequence reveals that the virus is highly polymorphic and lacks significant nucleotide homology with type C retroviruses characterized previously. Together with an analysis of the two major viral subgenomic RNAs, these studies establish the coding frames for the gag, pol and env genes and predict the expression of a novel gene at the 3' end of the genome unrelated to the X genes of HTLV-1 and -II.     

Motion-deblurring in human vision

If photographs are taken of moving objects at slow shutter speeds the images of the objects are blurred. In human vision, however, we are not normally conscious of blur from moving objects despite the fact that the temporal response of the photoreceptors is sluggish. It has been suggested that there are motion-deblurring mechanisms specifically to aid the visual system in the analysis of the shape of retinally moving targets. Models of motion deblurring have been influenced by the finding that certain very precise spatial pattern discriminations are unaffected by motion. An example is vernier hyperacuity, in which the observer must detect the direction of offset between two lines with abutting ends. With a stationary stimulus, observers can detect a vernier cue of less than 10 arcsec and acuity is unaffected by retinal-image motion of up to 3 deg s-1 We confirm this finding, but provide evidence against any general deblurring mechanism by showing that another kind of hyperacuity, discrimination of the distance between two parallel lines (spatial interval acuity), is interfered with by motion. This argues against a general deblurring mechanism, such as a neural network 'shifter circuit', and we point out that the high level of vernier acuity for moving stimuli is susceptible to an alternative explanation.     

An integrated view of the chemistry and mineralogy of martian soils

The mineralogical and elemental compositions of the martian soil are indicators of chemical and physical weathering processes. Using data from the Mars Exploration Rovers, we show that bright dust deposits on opposite sides of the planet are part of a global unit and not dominated by the composition of local rocks. Dark soil deposits at both sites have similar basaltic mineralogies, and could reflect either a global component or the general similarity in the compositions of the rocks from which they were derived. Increased levels of bromine are consistent with mobilization of soluble salts by thin films of liquid water, but the presence of olivine in analysed soil samples indicates that the extent of aqueous alteration of soils has been limited. Nickel abundances are enhanced at the immediate surface and indicate that the upper few millimetres of soil could contain up to one per cent meteoritic material.     

Water alteration of rocks and soils on Mars at the Spirit rover site in Gusev crater

Gusev crater was selected as the landing site for the Spirit rover because of the possibility that it once held a lake. Thus one of the rover's tasks was to search for evidence of lake sediments. However, the plains at the landing site were found to be covered by a regolith composed of olivine-rich basaltic rock and windblown 'global' dust. The analyses of three rock interiors exposed by the rock abrasion tool showed that they are similar to one another, consistent with having originated from a common lava flow. Here we report the investigation of soils, rock coatings and rock interiors by the Spirit rover from sol (martian day) 1 to sol 156, from its landing site to the base of the Columbia hills. The physical and chemical characteristics of the materials analysed provide evidence for limited but unequivocal interaction between water and the volcanic rocks of the Gusev plains. This evidence includes the softness of rock interiors that contain anomalously high concentrations of sulphur, chlorine and bromine relative to terrestrial basalts and martian meteorites; sulphur, chlorine and ferric iron enrichments in multilayer coatings on the light-toned rock Mazatzal; high bromine concentration in filled vugs and veins within the plains basalts; positive correlations between magnesium, sulphur and other salt components in trench soils; and decoupling of sulphur, chlorine and bromine concentrations in trench soils compared to Gusev surface soils, indicating chemical mobility and separation.