String theory,Einstein, and the identity of physics: Theory assessment in absence of the empirical

String theorists are certain that they are practicing physicists. Yet, some of their recent critics deny this. This paper argues that this conflict is really about who holds authority in making rational judgment in theoretical physics. At bottom, the conflict centers on the question: who is a proper physicist? To illustrate and understand the differing opinions about proper practice and identity, we discuss different appreciations of epistemic virtues and explanation among string theorists and their critics, and how these have been sourced in accounts of Einstein's biography. Just as Einstein is claimed by both sides, historiography offers examples of both successful and unsuccessful non-empirical science. History of science also teaches that times of conflict are often times of innovation, in which novel scholarly identities may come into being. At the same time, since the contributions of Thomas Kuhn historians have developed a critical attitude towards formal attempts and methodological recipes for epistemic demarcation and justification of scientific practice. These are now, however, being considered in the debate on non-empirical physics.     

Myosin IXB variant increases the risk of celiac disease and points toward a primary intestinal barrier defect

Celiac disease is probably the best-understood immune-related disorder. The disease presents in the small intestine and results from the interplay between multiple genes and gluten, the triggering environmental factor. Although HLA class II genes explain 40% of the heritable risk, non-HLA genes accounting for most of the familial clustering have not yet been identified. Here we report significant and replicable association (P = 2.1 x 10(-6)) to a common variant located in intron 28 of the gene myosin IXB (MYO9B), which encodes an unconventional myosin molecule that has a role in actin remodeling of epithelial enterocytes. Individuals homozygous with respect to the at-risk allele have a 2.3-times higher risk of celiac disease (P = 1.55 x 10(-5)). This result is suggestive of a primary impairment of the intestinal barrier in the etiology of celiac disease, which may explain why immunogenic gluten peptides are able to pass through the epithelial barrier.     

Suppression of immunization to tuberculosis and diphtheria by an extract of lymphoid tissue

Zusammenfassung Dank einer neuen Anwendung von Lymphknotenextrakten (statt Röntgenextrakten, Corticosteroiden, Antilymphozytenserum usw.) wird eine erhebliche Reduktion der immunologischen Reaktion erzielt, wenn die Tiere mit diesen Extrakten vorbehandelt und gleichzeitig mit Antigenen behandelt werden.

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This investigation was supported in part by U.S.P.H.S. Research Grant No. CA-02624 from National Cancer Institute; and in part by an institutional grant to Detroit Institute of Cancer Research from United Foundation of greater Detroit allocated through Michigan Cancer Foundation and the Detroit General Hospital Research Corporation, and Newaygo County Cancer Society.     

Activation of stress signalling pathways enhances tolerance of fungi to chemical fungicides and antifungal proteins

Fungal disease is an increasing problem in both agriculture and human health. Treatment of human fungal disease involves the use of chemical fungicides, which generally target the integrity of the fungal plasma membrane or cell wall. Chemical fungicides used for the treatment of plant disease, have more diverse mechanisms of action including inhibition of sterol biosynthesis, microtubule assembly and the mitochondrial respiratory chain. However, these treatments have limitations, including toxicity and the emergence of resistance. This has led to increased interest in the use of antimicrobial peptides for the treatment of fungal disease in both plants and humans. Antimicrobial peptides are a diverse group of molecules with differing mechanisms of action, many of which remain poorly understood. Furthermore, it is becoming increasingly apparent that stress response pathways are involved in the tolerance of fungi to both chemical fungicides and antimicrobial peptides. These signalling pathways such as the cell wall integrity and high-osmolarity glycerol pathway are triggered by stimuli, such as cell wall instability, changes in osmolarity and production of reactive oxygen species. Here we review stress signalling induced by treatment of fungi with chemical fungicides and antifungal peptides. Study of these pathways gives insight into how these molecules exert their antifungal effect and also into the mechanisms used by fungi to tolerate sub-lethal treatment by these molecules. Inactivation of stress response pathways represents a potential method of increasing the efficacy of antifungal molecules.     

Histologische und zytologische Untersuchungen über das Ependym und seine Abkömmlinge (insbesondere die Epiphyse und den Saccus vasculosus) bei niederen Vertebraten

Summary In the brain wall of different vertebrate species, ependymal cells of different type occur. These cells possess protuberances which protrude into the ventricle.Although cytologically these structures are all variations of one theme, they must at present be interpreted in different ways as regards function.Probably these cell types form a complex system for the regulation of the cerebrospinal fluid. It remains possible that one or more of these cell types act as light receptors.     

Epithelial antimicrobial peptides: innate local host response elements

Multicellular organisms have to survive in an environment laden with numerous microorganisms, which represent a potential hazard to life. Different strategies have been developed to ward off infections by preventing microorganisms from entering surfaces and by preventing the attack of microorganisms that have already entered the epithelia. Therefore, it is not surprising that epithelia are equipped with various antimicrobial substances that act rapidly to kill a broad range of microorganisms. This review summarizes our present knowledge about epithelial peptide antibiotics produced in plants, invertebrates, and vertebrates including humans. There is now strong evidence that in addition to constitutively secreted peptide antibiotics, others are induced upon contact with microorganisms or by proinflammatory cytokines. beta-Defensins represent one family of vertebrate antimicrobial peptides, members of which are inducible and have recently been identified in humans. The defensin-characteristic local expression pattern may indicate that specialized surfaces express a characteristic surface antimicrobial peptide pattern that might define the characteristic microflora as well as the density of microorganisms present on the surface.