Cytoglobin: biochemical,functional and clinical perspective of the newest member of the globin family

Since the discovery of cytoglobin (Cygb) a decade ago, growing amounts of data have been gathered to characterise Cygb biochemistry, functioning and implication in human pathologies. Its molecular roles remain under investigation, but nitric oxide dioxygenase and lipid peroxidase activities have been demonstrated. Cygb expression increases in response to various stress conditions including hypoxia, oxidative stress and fibrotic stimulation. When exogenously overexpressed, Cygb revealed cytoprotection against these factors. Cygb was shown to be upregulated in fibrosis and neurodegenerative disorders and downregulated in multiple cancer types. CYGB was also found within the minimal region of a hereditary tylosis with oesophageal cancer syndrome, and its expression was reduced in tylotic samples. Recently, Cygb has been shown to inhibit cancer cell growth in vitro, thus confirming its suggested tumour suppressor role. This article aims to review the biochemical and functional aspects of Cygb, its involvement in various pathological conditions and potential clinical utility.     

CD8<Superscript>+</Superscript> Tregs in autoimmunity: learning “self”-control from experience

Autoreactive CD8⁺ regulatory T cells (Tregs) play important roles as modulators of immune responses against self, and numerical and functional defects in CD8⁺ Tregs have been linked to autoimmunity. Several subsets of CD8⁺ Tregs have been described. However, the origin of these T cells and how they participate in the natural progression of autoimmunity remain poorly defined. We discuss several lines of evidence suggesting that the autoimmune process itself promotes the development of autoregulatory CD8⁺ T cells. We posit that chronic autoantigenic exposure fosters the differentiation of non-pathogenic autoreactive CD8⁺ T cells into antigen-experienced, memory-like autoregulatory T cells, to generate a “negative feedback” regulatory loop capable of countering pathogenic autoreactive effectors. This hypothesis predicts that approaches capable of boosting autoregulatory T cell memory will be able to blunt autoimmunity without compromising systemic immunity.     

The role of innate immune-stimulated epithelial apoptosis during gastrointestinal inflammatory diseases

The maintenance of mucosal barrier equilibrium in the intestine requires a delicate and dynamic balance between enterocyte loss by apoptosis and the generation of new cells by proliferation from stem cell precursors at the base of the intestinal crypts. When the balance shifts towards either excessive or insufficient apoptosis, a broad range of gastrointestinal diseases can manifest. Recent work from a variety of laboratories has provided evidence in support of a role for receptors of the innate immune system, including Toll-like receptors 2, 4, and 9 as well as the intracellular pathogen recognition receptor NOD2/CARD15, in the initiation of enterocyte apoptosis. The subsequent induction of enterocyte apoptosis in response to the activation of these innate immune receptors plays a key role in the development of various intestinal diseases, including necrotizing enterocolitis, Crohn’s disease, ulcerative colitis, and intestinal cancer. This review will detail the regulatory pathways that govern enterocyte apoptosis, and will explore the role of the innate immune system in the induction of enterocyte apoptosis in gastrointestinal disease.     

Proline-rich antimicrobial peptides: converging to a non-lytic mechanism of action

Proline-rich antimicrobial peptides are a group of cationic host defense peptides of vertebrates and invertebrates characterized by a high content of proline residues, often associated with arginine residues in repeated motifs. Those isolated from some mammalian and insect species, although not evolutionarily related, use a similar mechanism to selectively kill Gram-negative bacteria, with a low toxicity to animals. Unlike other types of antimicrobial peptides, their mode of action does not involve the lysis of bacterial membranes but entails penetration into susceptible cells, where they then act intracellularly. Some aspects of the transport system and cytoplasmic targets have been elucidated. These features make them attractive both as anti-infective lead compounds and as a new class of potential cell-penetrating peptides capable of internalising membrane-impermeant drugs into both bacterial and eukaryotic cells     

Modulation of γδ T cell responses by TLR ligands

Toll-like receptors (TLR) are pattern-recognition receptors that recognize a broad variety of structurally conserved molecules derived from microbes. The recognition of TLR ligands functions as a primary sensor of the innate immune system, leading to subsequent indirect activation of the adaptive immunity as well as none-immune cells. However, TLR are also expressed by several T cell subsets, and the respective ligands can directly modulate their effector functions. The present review summarizes the recent findings of γδ T cell modulation by TLR ligands. TLR1/2/6, 3, and 5 ligands can act directly in combination with T cell receptor (TCR) stimulation to enhance cytokine/chemokine production of freshly isolated human γδ T cells. In contrast to human γδ T cells, murine and bovine γδ T cells can directly respond to TLR2 ligands with increased proliferation and cytokine production in a TCR-independent manner. Indirect stimulatory effects on IFN-γ production of human and murine γδ T cells via TLR-ligand activated dendritic cells have been described for TLR2, 3, 4, 7, and 9 ligands. In addition, TLR3 and 7 ligands indirectly increase tumor cell lysis by human γδ T cells, whereas ligation of TLR8 abolishes the suppressive activity of human tumor-infiltrating Vδ1 γδ T cells on αβ T cells and dendritic cells. Taken together, these data suggest that TLR-mediated signals received by γδ T cells enhance the initiation of adaptive immune responses during bacterial and viral infection directly or indirectly. Moreover, TLR ligands enhance cytotoxic tumor responses of γδ T cells and regulate the suppressive capacity of γδ T cells.     

Transient receptor potential canonical channels in angiogenesis and axon guidance

Wiring of vascular and neural networks requires precise guidance of growing blood vessels and axons, respectively, to reach their targets during development. Both of the processes share common molecular signaling pathways. Transient receptor potential canonical (TRPC) channels are calcium-permeable cation channels and gated via receptor- or store-operated mechanisms. Recent studies have revealed the requirement of TRPC channels in mediating guidance cue-induced calcium influx and their essential roles in regulating axon navigation and angiogenesis. Dissecting TRPC functions in these physiological processes may provide therapeutic implications for suppressing pathological angiogenesis and improving nerve regeneration.     

Lipid complexes with cationic peptides and OAKs; their role in antimicrobial action and in the delivery of antimicrobial agents

Antimicrobial agents are toxic to bacteria by a variety of mechanisms. One mechanism that is very dependent on the lipid composition of the bacterial membrane is the clustering of anionic lipid by cationic antimicrobial agents. Certain species of oligo-acyl-lysine (OAK) antimicrobial agents are particularly effective in clustering anionic lipids in mixtures mimicking the composition of bacterial membranes. The clustering of anionic lipids by certain cationic antimicrobial agents contributes to the anti-bacterial action of these agents. Bacterial membrane lipids are a determining factor, resulting in some species of bacteria being more susceptible than others. In addition, lipids can be used to increase the effectiveness of antimicrobial agents when administered in vivo. Therefore, we review some of the structures in which lipid mixtures can assemble, to more effectively be utilized as antimicrobial delivery systems. We describe in more detail the complexes formed between mixtures of lipids mimicking bacterial membranes and an OAK and their usefulness in synergizing with antibiotics to overcome bacterial multidrug resistance.     

Mutations that silence constitutive signaling activity in the allosteric ligand-binding site of the thyrotropin receptor

The thyrotropin receptor (TSHR) exhibits elevated cAMP signaling in the basal state and becomes fully activated by thyrotropin. Previously we presented evidence that small-molecule ligands act allosterically within the transmembrane region in contrast to the orthosteric extracellular hormone-binding sites. Our goal in this study was to identify positions that surround the allosteric pocket and that are sensitive for inactivation of TSHR. Homology modeling combined with site-directed mutagenesis and functional characterization revealed seven mutants located in the allosteric binding site that led to a decrease of basal cAMP signaling activity. The majority of these silencing mutations, which constrain the TSHR in an inactive conformation, are found in two clusters when mapped onto the 3D structural model. We suggest that the amino acid positions identified herein are indicating locations where small-molecule antagonists, both neutral antagonists and inverse agonists, might interfere with active TSHR conformations.     

Faithful chaperones

This review describes the properties of some rare eukaryotic chaperones that each assist in the folding of only one target protein. In particular, we describe (1) the tubulin cofactors, (2) p47, which assists in the folding of collagen, (3) α-hemoglobin stabilizing protein (AHSP), (4) the adenovirus L4-100 K protein, which is a chaperone of the major structural viral protein, hexon, and (5) HYPK, the huntingtin-interacting protein. These various-sized proteins (102–1,190 amino acids long) are all involved in the folding of oligomeric polypeptides but are otherwise functionally unique, as they each assist only one particular client. This raises a question regarding the biosynthetic cost of the high-level production of such chaperones. As the clients of faithful chaperones are all abundant proteins that are essential cellular or viral components, it is conceivable that this necessary metabolic expenditure withstood evolutionary pressure to minimize biosynthetic costs. Nevertheless, the complexity of the folding pathways in which these chaperones are involved results in error-prone processes. Several human disorders associated with these chaperones are discussed.     

Immune biology of Ag-specific γδ T cells in infections

Accumulating evidence suggests that human γδ T cells act as non-classical T cells and contribute to both innate and adaptive immune responses in infections. Vγ2 Vδ2 T (also termed Vγ9 Vδ2 T) cells exist only in primates, and in humans represent a dominant circulating γδ T-cell subset. Primate Vγ2 Vδ2 T cells are the only γδ T cell subset capable of recognizing microbial phosphoantigen. Since nonhuman primate Vγ2 Vδ2 T cells resemble their human counterparts, in-depth studies have been undertaken in macaques to understand the biology and function of human Vγ2 Vδ2 T cells. This article reviews the recent progress for immune biology of Vγ2 Vδ2 T cells in infections.