Highly homologous HERC proteins localize to endosomes and exhibit specific interactions with hPLIC and Nm23B

Small HERC proteins are defined by the presence of one RCC1-like domain and a HECT domain. Having evolved out of one common ancestor, the four members of the family exhibit a high degree of homology in genomic organization and amino acid sequence, thus it seems possible that they might accomplish similar functions. Here we show that small HERC proteins interact with each other and localize to the same cellular structures, which we identify as late endosomes and lysosomes. We demonstrate interaction of HERC3 with the ubiquitin-like proteins hPLIC-1 and hPLIC-2 and we establish interaction of HERC5 with the metastasis suppressor Nm23B. While hPLIC proteins are not ubiquitinated by HERC3, HERC5 plays an important role in ubiquitination of Nm23B. In summary, although small HERC proteins are highly homologous showing the same subcellular distribution, they undergo different molecular interactions.     

Bile Acids: Chemistry, Pathochemistry, Biology, Pathobiology, and Therapeutics

Bile acids and bile alcohols in the form of their conjugates are amphipathic end products of cholesterol metabolism with multiple physiological functions. The great variety of bile acids and bile alcohols that are present in vertebrates are tabulated. Bile salts have an enterohepatic circulation resulting from efficient vectorial transport of bile salts through the hepatocyte and the ileal enterocyte; such transport leads to the accumulation of a pool of bile salts that cycles between the liver and intestine. Bile salt anions promote lipid absorption, enhance tryptic cleavage of dietary proteins, and have antimicrobial effects. Bile salts are signaling molecules, activating nuclear receptors in the hepatocyte and ileal enterocyte, as well as an increasing number of G-protein coupled receptors. Bile acids are used therapeutically to correct deficiency states, to decrease the cholesterol saturation of bile, or to decrease the cytotoxicity of retained bile acids in cholestatic liver disease.     

Molecular and Cellular Basis of Regeneration and Tissue Repair

The Xenopus tadpole is a favourable organism for regeneration research because it is suitable for a wide range of micromanipulative procedures and for a wide range of transgenic methods. Combination of these techniques enables genes to be activated or inhibited at specific times and in specific tissue types to a much higher degree than in any other organism capable of regeneration. Regenerating systems include the tail, the limb buds and the lens. The study of tail regeneration has shown that each tissue type supplies the cells for its own replacement: there is no detectable de-differentiation or metaplasia. Signalling systems needed for regeneration include the BMP and Notch signalling pathways, and perhaps also the Wnt and FGF pathways. The limb buds will regenerate completely at early stages, but not once they are fully differentiated. This provides a good opportunity to study the loss of regenerative ability using transgenic methods.     

Molecular and Cellular Basis of Regeneration and Tissue Repair

Planarians possess amazing abilities to regulate tissue homeostasis and regenerate missing body parts. These features reside on the presence of a population of pluripotent/totipotent stem cells, the neoblasts, which are considered as the only planarian cells able to proliferate in the asexual strains. Neoblast distribution has been identified by mapping the cells incorporating bromodeoxyuridine, analyzing mitotic figures and using cell proliferation markers. Recently identified molecular markers specifically label subgroups of neoblasts, revealing thus the heterogeneity of the planarian stem cell population. Therefore, the apparent totipotency of neoblasts probably reflects the composite activities of multiple stem cell types. First steps have been undertaken to understand how neoblasts and differentiated cells communicate with each other to adapt the self-renewal and differentiation rates of neoblasts to the demands of the body. Moreover, the introduction of molecular resource database on planarians now paves the way to renewed strategies to understand planarian regeneration and stem cell-related issues.     

The utility F-box for protein destruction

A signature feature of all living organisms is their utilization of proteins to construct molecular machineries that undertake the complex network of cellular activities. The abundance of a protein element is temporally and spatially regulated in two opposing aspects: de novo synthesis to manufacture the required amount of the protein, and destruction of the protein when it is in excess or no longer needed. One major route of protein destruction is coordinated by a set of conserved molecules, the F-box proteins, which promote ubiquitination in the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway. Here we discuss the functions of F-box proteins in several cellular scenarios including cell cycle progression, synapse formation, plant hormone responses, and the circadian clock. We particularly emphasize the mechanisms whereby F-box proteins recruit specific substrates and regulate their abundance in the context of SCF E3 ligases. For some exceptions, we also review how F-box proteins function through non-SCF mechanisms.     

The expression profile of TLR9 mRNA and CpG ODNs immunostimulatory actions in the teleost gilthead seabream points to a major role of lymphocytes

The potential effects of synthetic unmethylated oligodeoxynucleotides (ODN) containing CpG motifs, mimicking bacterial DNA, has never been evaluated on the immune response in the teleost fish gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata), the most important fish species in Mediterranean aquaculture. First, binding and competition studies have demonstrated that binding is saturated and promiscuous, suggesting the participation of several receptors. Moreover, leucocyte cytotoxic (NCC) activity, production of ROIs (reactive oxygen intermediates), and expression of immune-relevant genes was greatly primed by ODNs. Focusing on the mechanism, the TLR9 gene is widely distributed in seabream tissues and differently regulated in vitro by several stimuli. Moreover, and for the first time in fish, TLR9 mRNA has been detected in lymphocytes as the main cell-source. To conclude, ODNs containing GACGTT, GTCGTT (optimal for mouse and human, respectively) or AACGTT motifs are the most potent inducers of seabream immunity, whilst the involvement of TLR9 is under debate.     

Olfactory ensheathing cells are attracted to, and can endocytose, bacteria

Olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs) have been shown previously to express Toll-like receptors and to respond to bacteria by translocating nuclear factor-kappaB from the cytoplasm to the nucleus. In this study, we show that OECs extended significantly more pseudopodia when they were exposed to Escherichia coli than in the absence of bacteria (p=0.019). Co-immunoprecipitation showed that E. coli binding to OECs was mediated by Toll-like receptor 4. Lyso-Tracker, a fluorescent probe that accumulates selectively in lysosomes, and staining for type 1 lysosome-associated membrane proteins demonstrated that endocytosed FITC-conjugated E. coli were translocated to lysosomes. They appeared to be subsequently broken down, as shown by transmission electron microscopy. No obvious adherence to the membrane and less phagocytosis was observed when OECs were incubated with inert fluorescent microspheres. The ability of OECs to endocytose bacteria supports the notion that OECs play an innate immune function by protecting olfactory tissues from bacterial infection.     

Olfactory receptor trafficking to the plasma membrane

Olfactory receptors typically exhibit poor plasma membrane localization and functionality when heterologously expressed in most cell types. It has therefore proven difficult to effectively study olfactory receptor pharmacology and signaling mechanisms using traditional cell culture systems. Over the past few years, a variety of distinct proteins have been reported to interact with olfactory receptors and facilitate olfactory receptor trafficking to the plasma membrane in heterologous cells. Advances in this area have shed significant light on the fundamental factors governing the cell-specific control of olfactory receptor trafficking.     

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