A frequency comb in the extreme ultraviolet

Since 1998, the interaction of precision spectroscopy and ultrafast laser science has led to several notable accomplishments. Femtosecond laser optical frequency 'combs' (evenly spaced spectral lines) have revolutionized the measurement of optical frequencies and enabled optical atomic clocks. The same comb techniques have been used to control the waveform of ultrafast laser pulses, which permitted the generation of single attosecond pulses, and have been used in a recently demonstrated 'oscilloscope' for light waves. Here we demonstrate intra-cavity high harmonic generation in the extreme ultraviolet, which promises to lead to another joint frontier of precision spectroscopy and ultrafast science. We have generated coherent extreme ultraviolet radiation at a repetition frequency of more than 100 MHz, a 1,000-fold improvement over previous experiments. At such a repetition rate, the mode spacing of the frequency comb, which is expected to survive the high harmonic generation process, is large enough for high resolution spectroscopy. Additionally, there may be many other applications of such a quasi-continuous compact and coherent extreme ultraviolet source, including extreme ultraviolet holography, microscopy, nanolithography and X-ray atomic clocks.     

Äußere Abmessungen von Fadenmolekülen in Lösung

Ohne Zusammenfassung     

Über die Gestalt von Fadenmolekülen in Lösung

Summary Some arguments put forward byG. Bier in a recent article in order to supportH. Staudinger's assumption that chain molecules in solution should behave like straight rigid rods are examined. It is shown that the assumptions made byG. Bier are largely arbitrary. The main argument is the assumption that the C-C-bond in long chain molecules should not show any rotation. As far as this point is concerned, attention is drawn to some recent publications showing that the viscosity of shape of chain molecules can be determined by experiment (specific viscosity and double refraction of flow at high velocity gradients). According to these determinations the time necessary for a complete change of shape, using partially free rotation, is of the order of 10^–5–10^–3 seconds for molecules like nitrocellulose or polystyrene up to degrees of polymerization of several thousands and for viscosities of the solvent of the order of 10^–2 poises.     

City living and urban upbringing affect neural social stress processing in humans

More than half of the world's population now lives in cities, making the creation of a healthy urban environment a major policy priority. Cities have both health risks and benefits, but mental health is negatively affected: mood and anxiety disorders are more prevalent in city dwellers and the incidence of schizophrenia is strongly increased in people born and raised in cities. Although these findings have been widely attributed to the urban social environment, the neural processes that could mediate such associations are unknown. Here we show, using functional magnetic resonance imaging in three independent experiments, that urban upbringing and city living have dissociable impacts on social evaluative stress processing in humans. Current city living was associated with increased amygdala activity, whereas urban upbringing affected the perigenual anterior cingulate cortex, a key region for regulation of amygdala activity, negative affect and stress. These findings were regionally and behaviourally specific, as no other brain structures were affected and no urbanicity effect was seen during control experiments invoking cognitive processing without stress. Our results identify distinct neural mechanisms for an established environmental risk factor, link the urban environment for the first time to social stress processing, suggest that brain regions differ in vulnerability to this risk factor across the lifespan, and indicate that experimental interrogation of epidemiological associations is a promising strategy in social neuroscience.     

Formation and contents of yellow-pine chipmunk ( Tamias amoenus ) winter larders

Despite much attention to the foraging habits and hibernation patterns of food-storing mammals, little is known about the contents of winter larders under natural conditions or how animals prepare a winter larder. Here we describe the contents of 15 yellow-pine chipmunk ( Tamias amoenus ) winter larders from 3 different years and describe the movement of scatter-hoarded seeds into larders. We found larders by locating 14 radio-collared chipmunks in their winter dens. One additional larder was found by tracking the movement of seeds labeled with radioactive scandium-46 from scattered caches into the larder. Chipmunks formed winter dens and rapidly provisioned winter larders in the fall, just before the onset of winter. Surface caches were dynamic, with seeds residing in 1–6 cache sites (mean = 2.6, SD = 1.1) before being found in the larder. Distances from scattered caches to the winter larder were 34.5 m (SD = 17.1). Contents of winter larders consisted of pine and shrub seeds. In 14 of the 15 larders, pine seeds contributed most to the size and caloric content of larders. Pine seeds and other seeds found in winter larders were produced by plants 2–4 months before the onset of winter. We conclude that if yellow-pine chipmunks did not scatter-hoard seeds during summer and autumn, seeds would not have been available for use in winter larders.     

Dsg2 via Src-mediated transactivation shapes EGFR signaling towards cell adhesion

Rapidly renewing epithelial tissues such as the intestinal epithelium require precise tuning of intercellular adhesion and proliferation to preserve barrier integrity. Here, we provide evidence that desmoglein 2 (Dsg2), an adhesion molecule of desmosomes, controls cell adhesion and proliferation via epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) signaling. Dsg2 is required for EGFR localization at intercellular junctions as well as for Src-mediated EGFR activation. Src binds to EGFR and is required for localization of EGFR and Dsg2 to cell–cell contacts. EGFR is critical for cell adhesion and barrier recovery. In line with this, Dsg2-deficient enterocytes display impaired barrier properties and increased cell proliferation. Mechanistically, Dsg2 directly interacts with EGFR and undergoes heterotypic-binding events on the surface of living enterocytes via its extracellular domain as revealed by atomic force microscopy. Thus, our study reveals a new mechanism by which Dsg2 via Src shapes EGFR function towards cell adhesion.     

The filling mechanism of the swimbladder

Zusammenfassung Es wird gezeigt, dass die Erzeugung der hohen Gasdrucke, welche in der Schwimmblase von Tiefseefischen beobachtet werden, durchVervielfachung bekannter Konzentrier-Einzeleffekte in der durch das rete mirabile gegebenen Haarnadelgegenstromvorrichtung möglich ist.Der Konzentrier-Einzeleffekt — eine kleine Erhöhung der Gaskonzentration in den afferenten relativ zu benachbarten efferenten Kapillarelementen — dürfte bei allen Gasen durch eine geringe Erhöhung der Elektrolytkonzentration (Aussalzwirkung) zustande kommen.Im Falle von Sauerstoff überlagern sich der Aussalzwirkung bei Zusatz von Milchsäure die durch pH-Verschiebung bedingten Bohr- und Rooteffekte, wobei die Substanzen dem Blut am Scheitel des rete durch die dort befindliche Drüse zugefügt werden.Auf Grund der vorliegenden Berechnungen, die sich auf die beim Aal gegebenen Verhältnisse stützen, würde eine relative Erhöhung des Salzgehaltes um 0,02M/I im Falle von Stickstoff einen Einzeleffekt erzeugen, aus welchem infolge der durch das rete bewirkten Vervielfachung ein Partialdruck von etwa 25 Atm N₂ aufgebaut werden könnte.Eine relative Erhöhung des Milchsäuregehaltes in den efferenten Kapillaren um 45 mg% (beim Aalin vivo experimentell bestätigt) müsste für Sauerstoff einen Einzeleffekt hervorbringen, der bis zu Enddrucken von 3000 Atm multipliziert werden kann. Die genaue Analyse lässt in diesem Fall erkennen, dass bei niedrigen Partialdrücken der Bohr- und Rooteffekt, und nach Erreichung hoher O₂-Drücke, der Aussalzeffekt den im Gegenstrom vervielfachten Einzeleffekt bildet.Es wird ein Modellversuch beschrieben, bei welchem die Anreicherung eines Gases durch Vervielfachung des Aussalzeffektes in einer Gegenstromvorrichtung tatsächlich durchgeführt wurde.Es wird weiter darauf hingewiesen, dass der Vorgang im Gesamteffekt einenaktiven Transport darstellt und es wird die Herkunft der für einen solchen Vorgang benötigten freien Energie durch eine thermodynamische Betrachtung aufgezeigt.Im übrigen wurde versucht, die allgemeinen Prinzipien der Gegenstrom-Multiplikation verständlich zu machen, und bestehende Theorien über die Gaskonzentrierung in der Schwimmblase wurden im Lichte dieser Erkenntnisse einer sachlichen Diskussion und Kritik unterworfen.     

Mitosenverteilung in der larvalen Rumpfepidermis vonSalamandra maculosa Laur.

Summary In the larval epidermal trunk region ofSalamandra maculosa, the total number of mitoses of both sides is approximately the same. This applies to the differentiated Leydig cells as well as to the rest of the epidermis cells.With respect to the meristic segmentation of the trunk, we find within the single segments a regular rise of the mitotic rate, which alternates from one side to the other.From the total number of mitoses found in the epidermis of the trunk, approximately 40% can be accounted for to the dorsal and 60% to the ventral region of the trunk. The number of cells is the same for both the ventral and dorsal region.