New light shed on the oldest insect

Insects are the most diverse lineage of all life in numbers of species, and ecologically they dominate terrestrial ecosystems. However, how and when this immense radiation of animals originated is unclear. Only a few fossils provide insight into the earliest stages of insect evolution, and among them are specimens in chert from Rhynie, Scotland's Old Red Sandstone (Pragian; about 396-407 million years ago), which is only slightly younger than formations harbouring the earliest terrestrial faunas. The most well-known animal from Rhynie is the springtail Rhyniella praecursor (Entognatha; Collembola), long considered to be the oldest hexapod. For true insects (Ectognatha), the oldest records are two apparent wingless insects from later in the Devonian period of North America. Here we show, however, that a fragmentary fossil from Rhynie, Rhyniognatha hirsti, is not only the earliest true insect but may be relatively derived within basal Ectognatha. In fact, Rhyniognatha has derived characters shared with winged insects, suggesting that the origin of wings may have been earlier than previously believed. Regardless, Rhyniognatha indicates that insects originated in the Silurian period and were members of some of the earliest terrestrial faunas.     

Evidence for dynamically organized modularity in the yeast protein-protein interaction network

In apparently scale-free protein-protein interaction networks, or 'interactome' networks, most proteins interact with few partners, whereas a small but significant proportion of proteins, the 'hubs', interact with many partners. Both biological and non-biological scale-free networks are particularly resistant to random node removal but are extremely sensitive to the targeted removal of hubs. A link between the potential scale-free topology of interactome networks and genetic robustness seems to exist, because knockouts of yeast genes encoding hubs are approximately threefold more likely to confer lethality than those of non-hubs. Here we investigate how hubs might contribute to robustness and other cellular properties for protein-protein interactions dynamically regulated both in time and in space. We uncovered two types of hub: 'party' hubs, which interact with most of their partners simultaneously, and 'date' hubs, which bind their different partners at different times or locations. Both in silico studies of network connectivity and genetic interactions described in vivo support a model of organized modularity in which date hubs organize the proteome, connecting biological processes--or modules--to each other, whereas party hubs function inside modules.     

Tissue repair and stem cell renewal in carcinogenesis

Cancer is increasingly being viewed as a stem cell disease, both in its propagation by a minority of cells with stem-cell-like properties and in its possible derivation from normal tissue stem cells. But stem cell activity is tightly controlled, raising the question of how normal regulation might be subverted in carcinogenesis. The long-known association between cancer and chronic tissue injury, and the more recently appreciated roles of Hedgehog and Wnt signalling pathways in tissue regeneration, stem cell renewal and cancer growth together suggest that carcinogenesis proceeds by misappropriating homeostatic mechanisms that govern tissue repair and stem cell self-renewal.     

The case for a US prospective cohort study of genes and environment

Information from the Human Genome Project will be vital for defining the genetic and environmental factors that contribute to health and disease. Well-designed case-control studies of people with and without a particular disease are essential for this, but rigorous and unbiased conclusions about the causes of diseases and their population-wide impact will require a representative population to be monitored over time (a prospective cohort study). The time is right for the United States to consider such a project.     

Sustainable trophy hunting of African lions

In most species, sport hunting of male trophy animals can only reduce overall population size when the rate of removal of males is so high that females can no longer be impregnated. However, where males provide extensive paternal care, the removal of even a few individuals could harm the population as a whole. In species such as lions, excessive trophy hunting could theoretically cause male replacements (and associated infanticide) to become sufficiently common to prevent cubs reaching adulthood. Here we simulate the population consequences of lion trophy hunting using a spatially explicit, individual-based, stochastic model parameterized with 40 years of demographic data from northern Tanzania. Although our simulations confirm that infanticide increases the risk of population extinction, trophy hunting could be sustained simply by hunting males above a minimum age threshold, and this strategy maximizes both the quantity and the quality of the long-term kill. We present a simple non-invasive technique for estimating lion age in populations lacking long-term records, and suggest that quotas would be unnecessary in any male-only trophy species where age determination could be reliably implemented.     

Immunogenicity of a highly attenuated MVA smallpox vaccine and protection against monkeypox

The potential use of smallpox as a biological weapon has led to the production and stockpiling of smallpox vaccine and the immunization of some healthcare workers. Another public health goal is the licensing of a safer vaccine that could benefit the millions of people advised not to take the current one because they or their contacts have increased susceptibility to severe vaccine side effects. As vaccines can no longer be tested for their ability to prevent smallpox, licensing will necessarily include comparative immunogenicity and protection studies in non-human primates. Here we compare the highly attenuated modified vaccinia virus Ankara (MVA) with the licensed Dryvax vaccine in a monkey model. After two doses of MVA or one dose of MVA followed by Dryvax, antibody binding and neutralizing titres and T-cell responses were equivalent or higher than those induced by Dryvax alone. After challenge with monkeypox virus, unimmunized animals developed more than 500 pustular skin lesions and became gravely ill or died, whereas vaccinated animals were healthy and asymptomatic, except for a small number of transient skin lesions in animals immunized only with MVA.     

Tissue engineering: creation of long-lasting blood vessels

The construction of stable blood vessels is a fundamental challenge for tissue engineering in regenerative medicine. Although certain genes can be introduced into vascular cells to enhance their survival and proliferation, these manipulations may be oncogenic. We show here that a network of long-lasting blood vessels can be formed in mice by co-implantation of vascular endothelial cells and mesenchymal precursor cells, by-passing the need for risky genetic manipulations. These networks are stable and functional for one year in vivo.     

Proof and evolutionary analysis of ancient genome duplication in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Whole-genome duplication followed by massive gene loss and specialization has long been postulated as a powerful mechanism of evolutionary innovation. Recently, it has become possible to test this notion by searching complete genome sequence for signs of ancient duplication. Here, we show that the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae arose from ancient whole-genome duplication, by sequencing and analysing Kluyveromyces waltii, a related yeast species that diverged before the duplication. The two genomes are related by a 1:2 mapping, with each region of K. waltii corresponding to two regions of S. cerevisiae, as expected for whole-genome duplication. This resolves the long-standing controversy on the ancestry of the yeast genome, and makes it possible to study the fate of duplicated genes directly. Strikingly, 95% of cases of accelerated evolution involve only one member of a gene pair, providing strong support for a specific model of evolution, and allowing us to distinguish ancestral and derived functions.