Sensitivity loss in odd-symmetric mechanisms and phase anomalies in peripheral vision

The ability to detect, discriminate and identify spatial stimuli is much poorer in the peripheral than in the central visual field. Some deficits are eliminated by scaling stimulus size. For example, grating detectibility is roughly constant across the visual field when spatial frequency and target extent are scaled appropriately. Other deficits persist despite scaling. For instance, some readily detectable patterns are more difficult to identify peripherally than in the fovea. This deficit is caused, at least partially, by a reduced ability to encode spatial phase (or relative position). To specify the properties of foveal and peripheral phase-encoding mechanisms, we measured discrimination thresholds for compound gratings at several eccentricities. Our observations are consistent with a two-channel model of phase encoding based on even- and odd-symmetric mechanisms (see Fig. 1), but the sensitivity of the odd-symmetric mechanisms decreases dramatically with eccentricity. Thus, the loss of sensitivity in one type of mechanism may underlie the reduced ability to encode spatial phase peripherally.     

One or more bound planets per Milky Way star from microlensing observations

Most known extrasolar planets (exoplanets) have been discovered using the radial velocity or transit methods. Both are biased towards planets that are relatively close to their parent stars, and studies find that around 17-30% (refs 4, 5) of solar-like stars host a planet. Gravitational microlensing, on the other hand, probes planets that are further away from their stars. Recently, a population of planets that are unbound or very far from their stars was discovered by microlensing. These planets are at least as numerous as the stars in the Milky Way. Here we report a statistical analysis of microlensing data (gathered in 2002-07) that reveals the fraction of bound planets 0.5-10?AU (Sun-Earth distance) from their stars. We find that 17(+6)(-9)% of stars host Jupiter-mass planets (0.3-10?M(J), where M(J) = 318?M(⊕) and M(⊕) is Earth's mass). Cool Neptunes (10-30?M(⊕)) and super-Earths (5-10?M(⊕)) are even more common: their respective abundances per star are 52(+22)(-29)% and 62(+35)(-37)%. We conclude that stars are orbited by planets as a rule, rather than the exception.     

Cancellation of cellular responses to nanoelectroporation by reversing the stimulus polarity

Nanoelectroporation of biomembranes is an effect of high-voltage, nanosecond-duration electric pulses (nsEP). It occurs both in the plasma membrane and inside the cell, and nanoporated membranes are distinguished by ion-selective and potential-sensitive permeability. Here we report a novel phenomenon of bioeffects cancellation that puts nsEP cardinally apart from the conventional electroporation and electrostimulation by milli- and microsecond pulses. We compared the effects of 60- and 300-ns monopolar, nearly rectangular nsEP on intracellular Ca²⁺ mobilization and cell survival with those of bipolar 60 + 60 and 300 + 300 ns pulses. For diverse endpoints, exposure conditions, pulse numbers (1–60), and amplitudes (15–60 kV/cm), the addition of the second phase cancelled the effects of the first phase. The overall effect of bipolar pulses was profoundly reduced, despite delivering twofold more energy. Cancellation also took place when two phases were separated into two independent nsEP of opposite polarities; it gradually tapered out as the interval between two nsEP increased, but was still present even at a 10-µs interval. The phenomenon of cancellation is unique for nsEP and has not been predicted by the equivalent circuit, transport lattice, and molecular dynamics models of electroporation. The existing paradigms of membrane permeabilization by nsEP will need to be modified. Here we discuss the possible involvement of the assisted membrane discharge, two-step oxidation of membrane phospholipids, and reverse transmembrane ion transport mechanisms. Cancellation impacts nsEP applications in cancer therapy, electrostimulation, and biotechnology, and provides new insights into effects of more complex waveforms, including pulsed electromagnetic emissions.     

Immunoreactive forms of human erythrocyte ankyrin are present in diverse cells and tissues.

Ankyrin is a polypeptide of molecular weight (MW) 200,000 which is tightly bound to the cytoplasmic surface of the human erythrocyte membrane and has been identified as the high-affinity membrane attachment protein for spectrin. This protein has also been shown to be associated with band 3 (ref. 4), the major transmembrane protein which links a cytoplasmic structural protein to an integral membrane protein. A water-soluble, 72,000-MW, proteolytic fragment of ankyrin has been purified which retains the ability to bind to spectrin, and competitively inhibits reassociation of spectrin with membranes. Monospecific antibodies directed against this fragment have been prepared and demonstrated to cross-react only with ankyrin among the erythrocyte membrane proteins. The present study reports the use of these antibodies to develop a radioimmunoassay capable of detecting femtomolar quantities of ankyrin, and demonstrates the presence of small but significant amounts of immunoreactivity in a variety of types of cells and tissues.     

Chondroitinase ABC promotes functional recovery after spinal cord injury

The inability of axons to regenerate after a spinal cord injury in the adult mammalian central nervous system (CNS) can lead to permanent paralysis. At sites of CNS injury, a glial scar develops, containing extracellular matrix molecules including chondroitin sulphate proteoglycans (CSPGs). CSPGs are inhibitory to axon growth in vitro, and regenerating axons stop at CSPG-rich regions in vivo. Removing CSPG glycosaminoglycan (GAG) chains attenuates CSPG inhibitory activity. To test the functional effects of degrading chondroitin sulphate (CS)-GAG after spinal cord injury, we delivered chondroitinase ABC (ChABC) to the lesioned dorsal columns of adult rats. We show that intrathecal treatment with ChABC degraded CS-GAG at the injury site, upregulated a regeneration-associated protein in injured neurons, and promoted regeneration of both ascending sensory projections and descending corticospinal tract axons. ChABC treatment also restored post-synaptic activity below the lesion after electrical stimulation of corticospinal neurons, and promoted functional recovery of locomotor and proprioceptive behaviours. Our results demonstrate that CSPGs are important inhibitory molecules in vivo and suggest that their manipulation will be useful for treatment of human spinal injuries.