Distribution of spatial and nonspatial information in dorsal hippocampus

The hippocampus in the mammalian brain is required for the encoding of current and the retention of past experience. Previous studies have shown that the hippocampus contains neurons that encode information required to perform spatial and nonspatial short-term memory tasks. A more detailed understanding of the functional anatomy of the hippocampus would provide important insight into how such encoding occurs. Here we show that hippocampal neurons in the rat are distributed anatomically in distinct segments along the length of the hippocampus. Each longitudinal segment contains clusters of neurons that become active when the animal performs a task with spatial attributes. Within these same segments are ordered arrangements of neurons that encode the nonspatial aspects of the task appropriate to those spatial features. Thus, anatomical segregation of spatial information, together with the interleaved representation of nonspatial information, represents a structural framework that may help to resolve conflicting views of hippocampal function.     

Mitochondrial glutamate acts as a messenger in glucose-induced insulin exocytosis

The hormone insulin is stored in secretory granules and released from the pancreatic beta-cells by exocytosis. In the consensus model of glucose-stimulated insulin secretion, ATP is generated by mitochondrial metabolism, promoting closure of ATP-sensitive potassium (KATP) channels, which depolarizes the plasma membrane. Subsequently, opening of voltage-sensitive Ca2+ channels increases the cytosolic Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]c) which constitutes the main trigger initiating insulin exocytosis. Nevertheless, the Ca2+ signal alone is not sufficient for sustained secretion. Furthermore, glucose elicits a secretory response under conditions of clamped, elevated [Ca2+]c. A mitochondrial messenger must therefore exist which is distinct from ATP. We have now identified this as glutamate. We show that glucose generates glutamate from beta-cell mitochondria. A membrane-permeant glutamate analogue sensitizes the glucose-evoked secretory response, acting downstream of mitochondrial metabolism. In permeabilized cells, under conditions of fixed [Ca2+]c, added glutamate directly stimulates insulin exocytosis, independently of mitochondrial function. Glutamate uptake by the secretory granules is likely to be involved, as inhibitors of vesicular glutamate transport suppress the glutamate-evoked exocytosis. These results demonstrate that glutamate acts as an intracellular messenger that couples glucose metabolism to insulin secretion.     

Periodicity in marine phosphorus burial rate

There have been arguments both for and against a periodicity of 26-33 million years (Myr) in terrestrial and extraterrestrial records. The best way to identify such periodicity is the analysis of geomarine evolutionary records. We have analysed the marine sedimentary phosphorus burial rate (PBR), as fluctuations in this rate are strong indicators of the coupling of climate, continental weathering and ocean primary productivity. We find a statistically significant harmonic component of 33 +/- 3 Myr against the estimated robust background noise spectrum, supporting the idea that geomarine processes are cyclic.     

Sequence and analysis of chromosome 2 of the plant Arabidopsis thaliana

Arabidopsis thaliana (Arabidopsis) is unique among plant model organisms in having a small genome (130-140 Mb), excellent physical and genetic maps, and little repetitive DNA. Here we report the sequence of chromosome 2 from the Columbia ecotype in two gap-free assemblies (contigs) of 3.6 and 16 megabases (Mb). The latter represents the longest published stretch of uninterrupted DNA sequence assembled from any organism to date. Chromosome 2 represents 15% of the genome and encodes 4,037 genes, 49% of which have no predicted function. Roughly 250 tandem gene duplications were found in addition to large-scale duplications of about 0.5 and 4.5 Mb between chromosomes 2 and 1 and between chromosomes 2 and 4, respectively. Sequencing of nearly 2 Mb within the genetically defined centromere revealed a low density of recognizable genes, and a high density and diverse range of vestigial and presumably inactive mobile elements. More unexpected is what appears to be a recent insertion of a continuous stretch of 75% of the mitochondrial genome into chromosome 2.     

A structural change in the kinesin motor protein that drives motility

Kinesin motors power many motile processes by converting ATP energy into unidirectional motion along microtubules. The force-generating and enzymatic properties of conventional kinesin have been extensively studied; however, the structural basis of movement is unknown. Here we have detected and visualized a large conformational change of an approximately 15-amino-acid region (the neck linker) in kinesin using electron paramagnetic resonance, fluorescence resonance energy transfer, pre-steady state kinetics and cryo-electron microscopy. This region becomes immobilized and extended towards the microtubule 'plus' end when kinesin binds microtubules and ATP, and reverts to a more mobile conformation when gamma-phosphate is released after nucleotide hydrolysis. This conformational change explains both the direction of kinesin motion and processive movement by the kinesin dimer.