Reduced antinociception and plasma extravasation in mice lacking a neuropeptide Y receptor

Neuropeptide Y (NPY) is believed to exert antinociceptive actions by inhibiting the release of substance P and other 'pain neurotransmitters' in the spinal cord dorsal horn. However, the physiological significance and potential therapeutic value of NPY remain obscure. It is also unclear which receptor subtype(s) are involved. To identify a possible physiological role for the NPY Y1 receptor in pain transmission, we generated NPY Y1 receptor null mutant (Y1-/-) mice by homologous recombination techniques. Here we show that Y1-/- mice develop hyperalgesia to acute thermal, cutaneous and visceral chemical pain, and exhibit mechanical hypersensitivity. Neuropathic pain is increased, and the mice show a complete absence of the pharmacological analgesic effects of NPY. In the periphery, Y1 receptor activation is sufficient and required for substance P release and the subsequent development of neurogenic inflammation and plasma leakage. We conclude that the Y1 receptor is required for central physiological and pharmacological NPY-induced analgesia and that its activation is both sufficient and required for the release of substance P and initiation of neurogenic inflammation.     

Ecological importance of trichromatic vision to primates

Trichromatic colour vision, characterized by three retinal photopigments tuned to peak wavelengths of approximately 430 nm, approximately 535 nm and approximately 562 nm (refs 1, 2), has evolved convergently in catarrhine primates and one genus of New World monkey, the howlers (genus Alouatta). This uniform capacity to discriminate red-green colours, which is not found in other mammals, has been proposed as advantageous for the long-range detection of either ripe fruits or young leaves (which frequently flush red in the tropics) against a background of mature foliage. Here we show that four trichromatic primate species in Kibale Forest, Uganda, eat leaves that are colour discriminated only by red-greenness, a colour axis correlated with high protein levels and low toughness. Despite their divergent digestive systems, these primates have no significant interspecific differences in leaf colour selection. In contrast, eaten fruits were generally discriminated from mature leaves on both red-green and yellow-blue channels and also by their luminance, with a significant difference between chimpanzees and monkeys in fruit colour choice. Our results implicate leaf consumption, a critical food resource when fruit is scarce, as having unique value in maintaining trichromacy in catarrhines.