Book reviews

Affiliated to Astrophysics Div., Space Science Department, European Space Agency.     

Nanoscale chemical tomography of buried organic-inorganic interfaces in the chiton tooth

Biological organisms possess an unparalleled ability to control the structure and properties of mineralized tissues. They are able, for example, to guide the formation of smoothly curving single crystals or tough, lightweight, self-repairing skeletal elements. In many biominerals, an organic matrix interacts with the mineral as it forms, controls its morphology and polymorph, and is occluded during mineralization. The remarkable functional properties of the resulting composites-such as outstanding fracture toughness and wear resistance-can be attributed to buried organic-inorganic interfaces at multiple hierarchical levels. Analysing and controlling such interfaces at the nanometre length scale is critical also in emerging organic electronic and photovoltaic hybrid materials. However, elucidating the structural and chemical complexity of buried organic-inorganic interfaces presents a challenge to state-of-the-art imaging techniques. Here we show that pulsed-laser atom-probe tomography reveals three-dimensional chemical maps of organic fibres with a diameter of 5-10?nm in the surrounding nano-crystalline magnetite (Fe(3)O(4)) mineral in the tooth of a marine mollusc, the chiton Chaetopleura apiculata. Remarkably, most fibres co-localize with either sodium or magnesium. Furthermore, clustering of these cations in the fibre indicates a structural level of hierarchy previously undetected. Our results demonstrate that in the chiton tooth, individual organic fibres have different chemical compositions, and therefore probably different functional roles in controlling fibre formation and matrix-mineral interactions. Atom-probe tomography is able to detect this chemical/structural heterogeneity by virtue of its high three-dimensional spatial resolution and sensitivity across the periodic table. We anticipate that the quantitative analysis and visualization of nanometre-scale interfaces by laser-pulsed atom-probe tomography will contribute greatly to our understanding not only of biominerals (such as bone, dentine and enamel), but also of synthetic organic-inorganic composites.     

Widespread iron-rich conditions in the mid-Proterozoic ocean

The chemical composition of the ocean changed markedly with the oxidation of the Earth's surface, and this process has profoundly influenced the evolutionary and ecological history of life. The early Earth was characterized by a reducing ocean-atmosphere system, whereas the Phanerozoic eon (less than 542 million years ago) is known for a stable and oxygenated biosphere conducive to the radiation of animals. The redox characteristics of surface environments during Earth's middle age (1.8-1 billion years ago) are less well known, but it is generally assumed that the mid-Proterozoic was home to a globally sulphidic (euxinic) deep ocean. Here we present iron data from a suite of mid-Proterozoic marine mudstones. Contrary to the popular model, our results indicate that ferruginous (anoxic and Fe(2+)-rich) conditions were both spatially and temporally extensive across diverse palaeogeographic settings in the mid-Proterozoic ocean, inviting new models for the temporal distribution of iron formations and the availability of bioessential trace elements during a critical window for eukaryotic evolution.     

Evidence for several waves of global transmission in the seventh cholera pandemic

Vibrio cholerae is a globally important pathogen that is endemic in many areas of the world and causes 3-5 million reported cases of cholera every year. Historically, there have been seven acknowledged cholera pandemics; recent outbreaks in Zimbabwe and Haiti are included in the seventh and ongoing pandemic. Only isolates in serogroup O1 (consisting of two biotypes known as 'classical' and 'El Tor') and the derivative O139 can cause epidemic cholera. It is believed that the first six cholera pandemics were caused by the classical biotype, but El Tor has subsequently spread globally and replaced the classical biotype in the current pandemic. Detailed molecular epidemiological mapping of cholera has been compromised by a reliance on sub-genomic regions such as mobile elements to infer relationships, making El Tor isolates associated with the seventh pandemic seem superficially diverse. To understand the underlying phylogeny of the lineage responsible for the current pandemic, we identified high-resolution markers (single nucleotide polymorphisms; SNPs) in 154 whole-genome sequences of globally and temporally representative V. cholerae isolates. Using this phylogeny, we show here that the seventh pandemic has spread from the Bay of Bengal in at least three independent but overlapping waves with a common ancestor in the 1950s, and identify several transcontinental transmission events. Additionally, we show how the acquisition of the SXT family of antibiotic resistance elements has shaped pandemic spread, and show that this family was first acquired at least ten years before its discovery in V. cholerae.     

Distribution and abundance of pelagic fish in Lake Powell, Utah, and Lake Mead, Arizona-Nevada

Pelagic fish communities (waters with depths > 20 m) of Lakes Powell and Mead were examined quarterly from 1995 to1998 using vertical gill nets and a scientific echosounder. Nets captured a total of 449 fish consisting of striped bass (57%/45% [Lake Powell/Lake Mead]), threadfin shad (24%/50%), common carp (15%/4%), walleye (3%), channel catfish (2%), and rainbow trout ( -1 ). Reservoirs experienced dramatic seasonal and annual fluctuations in pelagic biomass. Lake Powell's biomass peaked at the Colorado River at 709.7 (± 46.5) kg · ha -1 and Lake Mead's reached 291.9 (± 58.2) kg · ha -1 at Las Vegas Wash. These locations supported estimated fish densities of 124,668 fish · ha -1 and 15,131 fish · ha -1 , respectively. Maximum reservoir biomass peaked in August 1996, with Lake Powell supporting 10,852,738 ± 5,195,556 kg (27.6 × 10 7 fish) and Lake Mead 1,926,697 ± 892.994 kg (10.8 × 10 7 fish). Biomass ebbed in May (1996 and 1997), when Lake Mead supported 65% (296,736 kg vs. 453,097 kg) and 62% (101,016 kg vs. 162,262 kg) of biomass levels found in Lake Powell.     

Diversity, stability and resilience of the human gut microbiota

Trillions of microbes inhabit the human intestine, forming a complex ecological community that influences normal physiology and susceptibility to disease through its collective metabolic activities and host interactions. Understanding the factors that underlie changes in the composition and function of the gut microbiota will aid in the design of therapies that target it. This goal is formidable. The gut microbiota is immensely diverse, varies between individuals and can fluctuate over time - especially during disease and early development. Viewing the microbiota from an ecological perspective could provide insight into how to promote health by targeting this microbial community in clinical treatments.     

IFITM3 restricts the morbidity and mortality associated with influenza

The 2009 H1N1 influenza pandemic showed the speed with which a novel respiratory virus can spread and the ability of a generally mild infection to induce severe morbidity and mortality in a subset of the population. Recent in vitro studies show that the interferon-inducible transmembrane (IFITM) protein family members potently restrict the replication of multiple pathogenic viruses. Both the magnitude and breadth of the IFITM proteins' in vitro effects suggest that they are critical for intrinsic resistance to such viruses, including influenza viruses. Using a knockout mouse model, we now test this hypothesis directly and find that IFITM3 is essential for defending the host against influenza A virus in vivo. Mice lacking Ifitm3 display fulminant viral pneumonia when challenged with a normally low-pathogenicity influenza virus, mirroring the destruction inflicted by the highly pathogenic 1918 'Spanish' influenza. Similar increased viral replication is seen in vitro, with protection rescued by the re-introduction of Ifitm3. To test the role of IFITM3 in human influenza virus infection, we assessed the IFITM3 alleles of individuals hospitalized with seasonal or pandemic influenza H1N1/09 viruses. We find that a statistically significant number of hospitalized subjects show enrichment for a minor IFITM3 allele (SNP rs12252-C) that alters a splice acceptor site, and functional assays show the minor CC genotype IFITM3 has reduced influenza virus restriction in vitro. Together these data reveal that the action of a single intrinsic immune effector, IFITM3, profoundly alters the course of influenza virus infection in mouse and humans.     

Astrocyte glypicans 4 and 6 promote formation of excitatory synapses via GluA1 AMPA receptors

In the developing central nervous system (CNS), the control of synapse number and function is critical to the formation of neural circuits. We previously demonstrated that astrocyte-secreted factors powerfully induce the formation of functional excitatory synapses between CNS neurons. Astrocyte-secreted thrombospondins induce the formation of structural synapses, but these synapses are postsynaptically silent. Here we use biochemical fractionation of astrocyte-conditioned medium to identify glypican 4 (Gpc4) and glypican 6 (Gpc6) as astrocyte-secreted signals sufficient to induce functional synapses between purified retinal ganglion cell neurons, and show that depletion of these molecules from astrocyte-conditioned medium significantly reduces its ability to induce postsynaptic activity. Application of Gpc4 to purified neurons is sufficient to increase the frequency and amplitude of glutamatergic synaptic events. This is achieved by increasing the surface level and clustering, but not overall cellular protein level, of the GluA1 subunit of the AMPA (α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid) glutamate receptor (AMPAR). Gpc4 and Gpc6 are expressed by astrocytes in vivo in the developing CNS, with Gpc4 expression enriched in the hippocampus and Gpc6 enriched in the cerebellum. Finally, we demonstrate that Gpc4-deficient mice have defective synapse formation, with decreased amplitude of excitatory synaptic currents in the developing hippocampus and reduced recruitment of AMPARs to synapses. These data identify glypicans as a family of novel astrocyte-derived molecules that are necessary and sufficient to promote glutamate receptor clustering and receptivity and to induce the formation of postsynaptically functioning CNS synapses.