Maxwell’s contrived analogy: An early version of the methodology of modeling

The term “analogy” stands for a variety of methodological practices all related in one way or another to the idea of proportionality. We claim that in his first substantial contribution to electromagnetism James Clerk Maxwell developed a methodology of analogy which was completely new at the time or, to borrow John North’s expression, Maxwell’s methodology was a “newly contrived analogue”. In his initial response to Michael Faraday’s experimental researches in electromagnetism, Maxwell did not seek an analogy with some physical system in a domain different from electromagnetism as advocated by William Thomson; rather, he constructed an entirely artificial one to suit his needs. Following North, we claim that the modification which Maxwell introduced to the methodology of analogy has not been properly appreciated. In view of our examination of the evidence, we argue that Maxwell gave a new meaning to analogy; in fact, it comes close to modeling in current usage.     

对我国增值税转型问题的思考

增值税按扣税对象的不同，可分为生产型、收入型和消费型增值税。在1994年税制改革中根据我国实际我们选择实行生产型增值税，但在以后的经济运行中，生产型增值税的弊端日益显现，阻碍了经济的发展。因此由生产型增值税向消费型增值税转变在当前显得尤为重要。     

湖北省地表有效辐射与净辐射的分布及变化

本文应用气候学计算方法,计算了湖北省83个气象台站的年、月有效辐射量和净辐射量.并讨沦了它们在全省的分布和变化特征。     

一类带线搜索的非单调自适应信赖域算法

对无约束优化问题提出了一类新的非单凋信赖域方法,与通常非单调信赖域方法不同,当试验步失败时并不重解信赖域子问题,而采用非单调线搜索.新算法利用一个R-函数以变化的速率来调整信赖域半径的大小,而不是简单的扩大或缩小一个常数倍.文中在一定的条件下证明了算法的收敛性.并且给出了相应的数值实验结果.     

Exome sequencing of gastric adenocarcinoma identifies recurrent somatic mutations in cell adhesion and chromatin remodeling genes

Gastric cancer is a major cause of global cancer mortality. We surveyed the spectrum of somatic alterations in gastric cancer by sequencing the exomes of 15 gastric adenocarcinomas and their matched normal DNAs. Frequently mutated genes in the adenocarcinomas included TP53 (11/15 tumors), PIK3CA (3/15) and ARID1A (3/15). Cell adhesion was the most enriched biological pathway among the frequently mutated genes. A prevalence screening confirmed mutations in FAT4, a cadherin family gene, in 5% of gastric cancers (6/110) and FAT4 genomic deletions in 4% (3/83) of gastric tumors. Frequent mutations in chromatin remodeling genes (ARID1A, MLL3 and MLL) also occurred in 47% of the gastric cancers. We detected ARID1A mutations in 8% of tumors (9/110), which were associated with concurrent PIK3CA mutations and microsatellite instability. In functional assays, we observed both FAT4 and ARID1A to exert tumor-suppressor activity. Somatic inactivation of FAT4 and ARID1A may thus be key tumorigenic events in a subset of gastric cancers.     

关于三角花键轴插齿刀的新探索

本文给出了三角花键轴插齿刀的无设计误差的新方法，并给出相应的CAD／CAM中的几何模型，最后还用实例验证了本文所供方法及模型的可靠性．     

X-最长圈的下界估计

设Ｇ是连通图,Ｘ＝Ｖ（Ｇ）,Ｇ〔Ｘ〕是Ｇ的Ｘ生成子图,记σｋ（Ｘ）＝ｍｉｎ｛Σｉ＝１ ｋ ｄ（Ｖｉ）;｛ｖ１,ｖ２,…,ｖｋ｝是Ｇ〔Ｘ〕的顶点独立集｝,得到如下结果,对于ｎ阶的１－坚韧图（ｎ≥３）,Ｘ＝Ｖ（Ｇ）,且σ３（Ｘ）≥ｎ＋ｒ≥ｎ,３│Ｘ│－２ｎ≥８ｔ－６ｒ－１７,则存在一个圈Ｃ满足│Ｃ（Ｘ）│≥｛Ｃ（Ｘ）│≥｛│Ｘ│,│Ｎ（Ｉｔ）∩Ｖ（Ｃ）│｝,其中Ｉｔ是Ｘ中ｔ个顶点的独立集。     

Magnification: how to turn a spyglass into an astronomical telescope

According to the received view, the first spyglass was assembled without any theory of how the instrument magnifies. Galileo, who was the first to use the device as a scientific instrument, improved the power of magnification up to 30 times. How did he accomplish this feat? Galileo does not tell us what he did. We hold that such improvement of magnification is too intricate a problem to be solved by trial and error, accidentally stumbling upon a complex procedure. We construct a plausibility argument and submit that Galileo had a theory of the telescope. He could develop it by analogical reasoning based on the phenomenon of reflection in mirrors—as it was put to use in surveying instruments—and applied to refraction in sets of lenses. Galileo could appeal to this analogy and assume Della Porta’s theory of refraction. He could thus turn the spyglass into a revolutionary scientific instrument—the telescope.     

Towards a typology of experimental errors: An epistemological view

This paper is concerned with the problem of experimental error. The prevalent view that experimental errors can be dismissed as a tiresome but trivial blemish on the method of experimentation is criticized. It is stressed that the occurrence of errors in experiments constitutes a permanent feature of the attempt to test theories in the physical world, and this feature deserves proper attention. It is suggested that a classification of types of experimental error may be useful as a heuristic device in studying the nature of these errors. However, the standard classification of systematic and random errors is mathematically based does not focus on the causes of the errors, their origins, or the contexts in which they arise. A new typology of experimental errors is therefore proposed whose criterion is epistemological. This typology reflects the various stages that can be discerned in the execution of an experiment, each stage constituting a category of a certain type of experimental error. The proposed classification consists of four categories which are illustrated by historical cases.