Molecular cloning of cDNAs encoding a guanine-nucleotide-releasing factor for Ras p21.

The stimulation of a variety of cell surface receptors promotes the accumulation of the active, GTP-bound form of Ras proteins in cells. This is a critical step in signal transduction because inhibition of Ras activation by anti-Ras antibodies or dominant inhibitory Ras mutants blocks many of the effects of these receptors on cellular function. To reach the active GTP-bound state, Ras proteins must first release bound GDP. This rate-limiting step in GTP binding is thought to be catalysed by a guanine-nucleotide-releasing factor (GRF). Here we report the cloning of complementary DNAs from a rat brain library that encode a approximately 140K GRF for Ras p21 (p140Ras-GRF). Its carboxy-terminal region is similar to that of CDC25, a GRF for Saccharomyces cerevisiae RAS. This portion of Ras-GRF accelerated the release of GDP from RasH and RasN p21 in vitro, but not from the related RalA, or CDC42Hs GTP-binding proteins. A region in the amino-terminal end of Ras-GRF is similar to both the human breakpoint cluster protein, Bcr, and the dbl oncogene product, a guanine-nucleotide-releasing factor for CDC42Hs. An understanding of Ras-GRF function will enhance our knowledge of the many signal transduction pathways mediated by Ras proteins.     

PDGF induction of tyrosine phosphorylation of GTPase activating protein

The cascade of biochemical events triggered by growth factors and their receptors is central to understanding normal cell-growth regulation and its subversion in cancer. Ras proteins (p21ras) have been implicated in signal transduction pathways used by several growth factors, including platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF). These guanine nucleotide-binding Ras proteins specifically interact with a cellular GTPase-activating protein (GAP). Here we report that in intact quiescent fibroblasts, both AA and BB homodimers of PDGF rapidly induce tyrosine phosphorylation of GAP under conditions in which insulin and basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) are ineffective. Although GAP is located predominantly in the cytosol, most tyrosine-phosphorylated GAP is associated with the cell membrane, the site of p21ras biological activity. These results provide a direct biochemical link between activated PDGF-receptor tyrosine kinases and the p21ras-GAP mitogenic signalling system.     

Different beta-subunits determine G-protein interaction with transmembrane receptors.

Regulatory GTP-binding proteins (G proteins) are membrane-attached heterotrimers (alpha, beta, gamma) that mediate cellular responses to a wide variety of extracellular stimuli. They undergo a cycle of guanine-nucleotide exchange and GTP hydrolysis, during which they dissociate into alpha-subunit and beta gamma complex. The roles of G-protein alpha-subunits in these processes and for the specificity of signal transduction are largely established; the beta- and gamma-subunits are essential for receptor-induced G-protein activation and seem to be less diverse and less specific. Although the complementary DNAs for several beta-subunits have been cloned, isolated subunits have only been studied as beta gamma complexes. Functional differences have been ascribed to the gamma-subunit on the basis of extensive sequence similarity among beta-subunits and apparent heterogeneity in gamma-subunit sequences. Beta gamma complexes can interact directly or indirectly with different effectors. They seem to be interchangeable in their interaction with pertussis toxin-sensitive alpha-subunits, so we tested this by microinjecting antisense oligonucleotides into nuclei of a rat pituitary cell line to suppress the synthesis of individual beta-subunits selectively. Here we show that two out of four subtypes of beta-subunits tested (beta 1 and beta 3) are selectively involved in the signal transduction cascades from muscarinic M4 (ref. 4) and somatostatin receptors, respectively, to voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels.     

Reaction path of protein farnesyltransferase at atomic resolution

Protein farnesyltransferase (FTase) catalyses the attachment of a farnesyl lipid group to numerous essential signal transduction proteins, including members of the Ras superfamily. The farnesylation of Ras oncoproteins, which are associated with 30% of human cancers, is essential for their transforming activity. FTase inhibitors are currently in clinical trials for the treatment of cancer. Here we present a complete series of structures representing the major steps along the reaction coordinate of this enzyme. From these observations can be deduced the determinants of substrate specificity and an unusual mechanism in which product release requires binding of substrate, analogous to classically processive enzymes. A structural model for the transition state consistent with previous mechanistic studies was also constructed. The processive nature of the reaction suggests the structural basis for the successive addition of two prenyl groups to Rab proteins by the homologous enzyme geranylgeranyltransferase type-II. Finally, known FTase inhibitors seem to differ in their mechanism of inhibiting the enzyme.     

Ras regulates assembly of mitogenic signalling complexes through the effector protein IMP

The signal transduction cascade comprising Raf, mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase kinase (MEK) and MAP kinase is a Ras effector pathway that mediates diverse cellular responses to environmental cues and contributes to Ras-dependent oncogenic transformation. Here we report that the Ras effector protein Impedes Mitogenic signal Propagation (IMP) modulates sensitivity of the MAP kinase cascade to stimulus-dependent activation by limiting functional assembly of the core enzymatic components through the inactivation of KSR, a scaffold/adaptor protein that couples activated Raf to its substrate MEK. IMP is a Ras-responsive E3 ubiquitin ligase that, on activation of Ras, is modified by auto-polyubiquitination, which releases the inhibition of Raf-MEK complex formation. Thus, Ras activates the MAP kinase cascade through simultaneous dual effector interactions: induction of Raf kinase activity and derepression of Raf-MEK complex formation. IMP depletion results in increased stimulus-dependent MEK activation without alterations in the timing or duration of the response. These observations suggest that IMP functions as a threshold modulator, controlling sensitivity of the cascade to stimulus and providing a mechanism to allow adaptive behaviour of the cascade in chronic or complex signalling environments.     

Alterations in phosphoproteome under salt stress in Thellungiella roots

High salinity stress is a major environmental factor that limits plant’s distribution and productivity. An Arabidopsis-related halophyte, Thellungiella halophila, is an emerging model system used for plant abiotic stress tolerance research. Previous studies have suggested that protein phosphorylation has a crucial role in the high salinity response in plants. However, the phosphoproteome differential expression under high salinity stress in halophytes has not been well studied. In this report, phosphoproteome differential expression was analyzed under high salinity stress in Thellungiella roots. Twenty-six putative phosphoproteins were found to have changed expression pattern at the post-translational level. Twenty of these were identified by mass spectrometric analysis, including 18 upregulated and two downregulated phosphoproteins. These proteins were involved in a variety of cellular processes, such as signal transduction, ROS detoxification, energy pathway, protein synthesis and protein folding. While most of these salt-responsive putative phosphoproteins are known salt-stress-related proteins, some of them have not been previously reported. Our results provide not only new insights into salt stress responses in Thellungiella but also a good foundation for further investigation of these high salinity-regulated phosphoproteins.     

泛素-蛋白酶体途径的生物学功能

泛素—蛋白酶体途径通过降解许多诸如细胞周期因子、调节蛋白等蛋白,从而参与调节许多重要的生命活动。此途径的失调与许多人类疾病有关。针对此途径的研究为人类疾病预防和治疗提供了一个新思路。     

Spred is a Sprouty-related suppressor of Ras signalling

Cellular proliferation, and differentiation of cells in response to extracellular signals, are controlled by the signal transduction pathway of Ras, Raf and MAP (mitogen-activated protein) kinase. The mechanisms that regulate this pathway are not well known. Here we describe two structurally similar tyrosine kinase substrates, Spred-1 and Spred-2. These two proteins contain a cysteine-rich domain related to Sprouty (the SPR domain) at the carboxy terminus. In Drosophila, Sprouty inhibits the signalling by receptors of fibroblast growth factor (FGF) and epidermal growth factor (EGF) by suppressing the MAP kinase pathway. Like Sprouty, Spred inhibited growth-factor-mediated activation of MAP kinase. The Ras-MAP kinase pathway is essential in the differentiation of neuronal cells and myocytes. Expression of a dominant negative form of Spred and Spred-antibody microinjection revealed that endogenous Spred regulates differentiation in these types of cells. Spred constitutively associated with Ras but did not prevent activation of Ras or membrane translocation of Raf. Instead, Spred inhibited the activation of MAP kinase by suppressing phosphorylation and activation of Raf. Spred may represent a class of proteins that modulate Ras-Raf interaction and MAP kinase signalling.     

Molecular basis of transmembrane signalling by sensory rhodopsin II-transducer complex

Microbial rhodopsins, which constitute a family of seven-helix membrane proteins with retinal as a prosthetic group, are distributed throughout the Bacteria, Archaea and Eukaryota. This family of photoactive proteins uses a common structural design for two distinct functions: light-driven ion transport and phototaxis. The sensors activate a signal transduction chain similar to that of the two-component system of eubacterial chemotaxis. The link between the photoreceptor and the following cytoplasmic signal cascade is formed by a transducer molecule that binds tightly and specifically to its cognate receptor by means of two transmembrane helices (TM1 and TM2). It is thought that light excitation of sensory rhodopsin II from Natronobacterium pharaonis (SRII) in complex with its transducer (HtrII) induces an outward movement of its helix F (ref. 6), which in turn triggers a rotation of TM2 (ref. 7). It is unclear how this TM2 transition is converted into a cellular signal. Here we present the X-ray structure of the complex between N. pharaonis SRII and the receptor-binding domain of HtrII at 1.94 A resolution, which provides an atomic picture of the first signal transduction step. Our results provide evidence for a common mechanism for this process in phototaxis and chemotaxis.     

禾谷炭疽菌中候选G蛋白偶联受体蛋白理化性质及遗传关系分析

GPCR是G蛋白偶联受体的简称,作为一类具有七跨膜螺旋结构的重要细胞表面受体,对生物中细胞信号转导过程发挥着重要作用。然而,对于禾谷炭疽菌候选GPCR蛋白的理化性质及遗传关系尚不清楚,制约着对该菌致病机制的研究。本研究基于对禾谷炭疽菌中220个候选GPCR蛋白序列,利用SignalP 5.1、ProtParam和ProtScal等在线预测程序对上述蛋白中的信号肽、理化性质、疏水性进行明确,结果表明,禾谷炭疽菌中仅有7个含有信号肽的候选GPCR蛋白,理论等电点主要集中在大于6.01,多属于中性或碱性蛋白,均为疏水性蛋白,同时利用MEGA软件对上述蛋白的遗传关系进行解析,明确候选GPCR蛋白主要分为A、B、C三类,上述类别与其保守结构域有着密切关系。该研究为进一步开展禾谷炭疽菌GPCR蛋白功能解析提供了重要的理论支撑,也为其他炭疽菌中GPCR蛋白功能研究提供了重要的理论基础。     

LysM蛋白在植物免疫中的作用

溶解素基序（LysM）是在多种蛋白质中普遍存在的结构域.植物LysM蛋白能够感知几丁质及其寡糖等分子配体，从而启动植物对病原菌的免疫反应.在水稻、拟南芥等植物免疫应答过程中，LysM蛋白作为一种重要的模式识别受体，通过不同形式的寡聚化，激活多种类受体胞质激酶及其下游的MAPK（mitogen activated protein kinase）级联反应传递信号.同时，蛋白质可逆磷酸化和蛋白质降解途径可以负调节LysM蛋白介导的防御信号转导.文章综述了植物免疫过程中LysM蛋白介导的信号转导分子机制.     

The Ras-MAPK pathway is important for olfaction in Caenorhabditis elegans

The Ras-MAPK (mitogen-activated protein kinase) signal transduction pathway is well known to control cellular proliferation and differentiation in response to extracellular signals, but its other functions are less understood. In Caenorhabditis elegans this pathway regulates several developmental events, such as vulval induction and progression of meiosis, but its function in the nervous system is unknown. Here we report that the Ras-MAPK pathway is involved in olfaction in this organism. Mutational inactivation and hyperactivation of this pathway impairs efficiency of chemotaxis to a set of odorants. Experiments in which let-60 ras was expressed using a heat-shock promoter and a cell-specific promoter show that a normal activity of LET-60 Ras is required in mature olfactory neurons. Application of the odorant isoamylalcohol to wild-type animals leads to the activation of MAP kinase in olfactory neurons within 10 seconds. This induction is dependent on the function of the nucleotide-gated channel TAX-2/TAX-4 and the voltage-activated calcium channel subunit UNC-2. These results suggest a dynamic regulatory role for the Ras-MAPK pathway in perception and transmission of sensory signals in olfactory neurons.     

Primary structure of the alpha-subunit of transducin and its relationship to ras proteins

A group of membrane-associated guanine nucleotide binding proteins (G-proteins) are essential for transducing signals generated at cell-surface receptors into changes in cellular function and metabolism. These proteins are a complex of three subunits designated alpha, beta and gamma. The alpha-subunit is responsible for binding guanine nucleotides and seems to be characteristic of each protein. Transducin, a member of this protein family, mediates visual transduction by coupling the signal of photolysed rhodopsin with activation of a cyclic GMP phosphodiesterase. We have now cloned and sequenced the complementary DNA encoding the alpha-subunit of bovine retinal transducin and from this we have deduced the complete amino-acid sequence. The transducin alpha-subunit shares several homologous amino-acid sequences with ras gene products. The homologous segments correspond mostly to the regions thought to be involved in the guanine nucleotide binding and GTPase activity of ras proteins and to the ADP-ribosylation sites of the transducin alpha-subunit.     

Interpretation of the sonic hedgehog morphogen gradient by a temporal adaptation mechanism

Morphogens act in developing tissues to control the spatial arrangement of cellular differentiation. The activity of a morphogen has generally been viewed as a concentration-dependent response to a diffusible signal, but the duration of morphogen signalling can also affect cellular responses. One such example is the morphogen sonic hedgehog (SHH). In the vertebrate central nervous system and limbs, the pattern of cellular differentiation is controlled by both the amount and the time of SHH exposure. How these two parameters are interpreted at a cellular level has been unclear. Here we provide evidence that changing the concentration or duration of SHH has an equivalent effect on intracellular signalling. Chick neural cells convert different concentrations of SHH into time-limited periods of signal transduction, such that signal duration is proportional to SHH concentration. This depends on the gradual desensitization of cells to ongoing SHH exposure, mediated by the SHH-dependent upregulation of patched 1 (PTC1), a ligand-binding inhibitor of SHH signalling. Thus, in addition to its role in shaping the SHH gradient, PTC1 participates cell autonomously in gradient sensing. Together, the data reveal a novel strategy for morphogen interpretation, in which the temporal adaptation of cells to a morphogen integrates the concentration and duration of a signal to control differential gene expression.     

笠贝幼虫变态相关基因筛选及分子网络构建

利用NCBI在线数字化差异显示工具（Digital Differential Display）对笠贝(Lottia gigantea)EST数据库进行筛选,获得笠贝幼虫时期显著差异表达基因203个,其中124个基因有Blast2Go注释结果,这124个基因可以归类成细胞组分、分子功能和生物学过程三大类;参与MAPK、Ras、PI3K-Akt、Rap1、cAMP等信号通路;涉及能量代谢、免疫应激、细胞分化、神经发育、细胞骨架、信号传递等生物学过程.将获得的转录子运用Cytoscape软件构建分子相互作用网络,最终获得7个核心转录子.涉及到神经发育、次生壳形成等相关基因调控关系.     

Feedback inhibition of calcineurin and Ras by a dual inhibitory protein Carabin

Feedback regulation of adaptive immunity is a fundamental mechanism for controlling the overall output of different signal transduction pathways, including that mediated by the T-cell antigen receptor (TCR). Calcineurin and Ras are known to have essential functions during T-cell activation. However, how the calcineurin signalling pathway is terminated in the process is still largely unknown. Although several endogenous inhibitors of calcineurin have been reported, none fulfils the criteria of a feedback inhibitor, as their expression is not responsive to TCR signalling. Here we identify an endogenous inhibitor of calcineurin, named Carabin, which also inhibits the Ras signalling pathway through its intrinsic Ras GTPase-activating protein (GAP) activity. Expression of Carabin is upregulated on TCR signalling in a manner that is sensitive to inhibitors of calcineurin, indicating that Carabin constitutes part of a negative regulatory loop for the intracellular TCR signalling pathway. Knockdown of Carabin by short interfering RNA led to a significant enhancement of interleukin-2 production by antigen-specific T cells in vitro and in vivo. Thus, Carabin is a negative feedback inhibitor of the calcineurin signalling pathway that also mediates crosstalk between calcineurin and Ras.     

Signal transduction pathways mediated by colony stimulating factor-1 receptor

Colony-stimulating factor-1 (CSF-1), which is necessary for cell proliferation and differentiation, regulates both immediate and delayed early responses throughout G1 phase. The binding of CSF-1 to its receptor (CSF-1R) triggers phosphorylation of the receptor and its intrinsic tyrosine kinase. The activated receptor binds directly to cytoplasmic effector proteins, which induce multiple-signal transduction pathways. CSF-1 can induce the c-myc gene expression via Ras and Ets-related proteins. The expression of c-fos/jun family genes is also targeted following the activation of Ras. CSF-1R activates STAT1 and STAT3 to participate in signaling, but JAKs do not appear to contribute to signaling by CSF-1R. CSF-1R activates PI3-kinase, and PI3-ki can interact with downstream proteins by the MAPKK-related pathway independent of Ras/Raf. PC-PLC can enforce signaling in response to CSF-1. Furthermore, the turnover and dephosphorylation by the phosphatase SHPTP1 of CSF-1R are the major mechanism in the negative regulation of signaling by CSF-1R     

细胞膜上的离子通道

离子通道是细胞膜上控制离子进出的功能蛋白,在细胞生命活动中发挥重要作用．离子通道具有对离子的选择性、通透的饱和性和开关的可控制性等特点;膜电压的变化、机械刺激和某些信号分子都可以调控离子通道开关;离子通道担负着离子吸收、渗透压调控、电冲动的形成和信号转导等重要的生理功能．离子通道的结构或功能失常会导致一些严重的疾病,对离子通道进行研究,寻找和设计调控离子通道的有效药物是治疗相关疾病的重要手段。     

人工合成非肽类Caspase-3抑制剂的研究进展

半胱氨酸蛋白酶（Caspase）家族是代表着一类细胞内的蛋白酶系统,在介导细胞凋亡扮演着重要的角色[1].细胞凋亡的发生是一个复杂Caspase家族引导的蛋白酶级联反应过程,尽管对于不同的细胞或不同信号传导途径诱发的凋亡过程中参与的Caspase有所不同,但Caspase-3是细胞凋亡蛋白酶级联反应的必经之路,也是凋亡的关键酶和执行者.而由Caspase调控的细胞凋亡的不正常激活是引起人体机能紊乱的一些疾病的主要根源,例如肿瘤、自身免疫性疾病、病毒性感染以及各种神经退行性疾病等.所以针对Caspases-3的抑制剂将可能是上述疾病的一种非常有效的治疗药物.由于天然的Caspase抑制剂和人工合成肽类Caspase抑制剂在特异性,透膜性,体内稳定性和活性等方面的不足,人们便开始了对人工合成非肽类抑制剂的研究.本文对近年来人工合成非肽类Caspase-3抑制剂的研究进展情况作一综述.