Efflux-dependent auxin gradients establish the apical-basal axis of Arabidopsis

Axis formation occurs in plants, as in animals, during early embryogenesis. However, the underlying mechanism is not known. Here we show that the first manifestation of the apical-basal axis in plants, the asymmetric division of the zygote, produces a basal cell that transports and an apical cell that responds to the signalling molecule auxin. This apical-basal auxin activity gradient triggers the specification of apical embryo structures and is actively maintained by a novel component of auxin efflux, PIN7, which is located apically in the basal cell. Later, the developmentally regulated reversal of PIN7 and onset of PIN1 polar localization reorganize the auxin gradient for specification of the basal root pole. An analysis of pin quadruple mutants identifies PIN-dependent transport as an essential part of the mechanism for embryo axis formation. Our results indicate how the establishment of cell polarity, polar auxin efflux and local auxin response result in apical-basal axis formation of the embryo, and thus determine the axiality of the adult plant.     

A mirror-symmetric cell division that orchestrates neuroepithelial morphogenesis

The development of cell polarity is an essential prerequisite for tissue morphogenesis during embryogenesis, particularly in the development of epithelia. In addition, oriented cell division can have a powerful influence on tissue morphogenesis. Here we identify a novel mode of polarized cell division that generates pairs of neural progenitors with mirror-symmetric polarity in the developing zebrafish neural tube and has dramatic consequences for the organization of embryonic tissue. We show that during neural rod formation the polarity protein Pard3 is localized to the cleavage furrow of dividing progenitors, and then mirror-symmetrically inherited by the two daughter cells. This allows the daughter cells to integrate into opposite sides of the developing neural tube. Furthermore, these mirror-symmetric divisions have powerful morphogenetic influence: when forced to occur in ectopic locations during neurulation, they orchestrate the development of mirror-image pattern formation and the consequent generation of ectopic neural tubes.     

石刁柏愈伤组织类型与形态发生的关系

石刁柏愈伤组织形成和发育可分为5个时期：细胞启动期，细胞分裂期，细胞分化期，形态发生期和衰退老化期，根据愈伤组织中分生细胞的分布状况可将愈伤组织分为6种类型，每类愈伤组织均有不同的形态发生能力，第2类愈伤组织芽分化频率较高，第4类愈伤组织根分化频率较高，第6类愈伤组织胚状体分化频率较高。     

Auxin promotes Arabidopsis root growth by modulating gibberellin response

The growth of plant organs is influenced by a stream of the phytohormone auxin that flows from the shoot apex to the tip of the root. However, until now it has not been known how auxin regulates the cell proliferation and enlargement that characterizes organ growth. Here we show that auxin controls the growth of roots by modulating cellular responses to the phytohormone gibberellin (GA). GA promotes the growth of plants by opposing the effects of nuclear DELLA protein growth repressors, one of which is Arabidopsis RGA (for repressor of gal-3). GA opposes the action of several DELLA proteins by destabilizing them, reducing both the concentration of detectable DELLA proteins and their growth-restraining effects. We also show that auxin is necessary for GA-mediated control of root growth, and that attenuation of auxin transport or signalling delays the GA-induced disappearance of RGA from root cell nuclei. Our observations indicate that the shoot apex exerts long-distance control on the growth of plant organs through the effect of auxin on GA-mediated DELLA protein destabilization.     

Reactive oxygen species produced by NADPH oxidase regulate plant cell growth

Cell expansion is a central process in plant morphogenesis, and the elongation of roots and root hairs is essential for uptake of minerals and water from the soil. Ca2+ influx from the extracellular store is required for (and sets the rates of) cell elongation in roots. Arabidopsis thaliana rhd2 mutants are defective in Ca2+ uptake and consequently cell expansion is compromised--rhd2 mutants have short root hairs and stunted roots. To determine the regulation of Ca2+ acquisition in growing root cells we show here that RHD2 is an NADPH oxidase, a protein that transfers electrons from NADPH to an electron acceptor leading to the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). We show that ROS accumulate in growing wild-type (WT) root hairs but their levels are markedly decreased in rhd2 mutants. Blocking the activity of the NADPH oxidase with diphenylene iodonium (DPI) inhibits ROS formation and phenocopies Rhd2-. Treatment of rhd2 roots with ROS partly suppresses the mutant phenotype and stimulates the activity of plasma membrane hyperpolarization-activated Ca2+ channels, the predominant root Ca2+ acquisition system. This indicates that NADPH oxidases control development by making ROS that regulate plant cell expansion through the activation of Ca2+ channels.     

MOR1 is essential for organizing cortical microtubules in plants

Microtubules orchestrate cell division and morphogenesis, but how they disassemble and reappear at different subcellular locations is unknown. Microtubule organizing centres are thought to have an important role, but in higher plants microtubules assemble in ordered configurations even though microtubule organizing centres are inconspicuous or absent. Plant cells generate highly organized microtubule arrays that coordinate mitosis, cytokinesis and expansion. Inhibiting microtubule assembly prevents chromosome separation, blocks cell division and impairs growth polarity. Microtubules are essential for the formation of cell walls, through an array of plasma-membrane-associated cortical microtubules whose control mechanisms are unknown. Using a genetic strategy to identify microtubule organizing factors in Arabidopsis thaliana, we isolated temperature-sensitive mutant alleles of the MICROTUBULE ORGANIZATION 1 (MOR1) gene. Here we show that MOR1 is the plant version of an ancient family of microtubule-associated proteins. Point mutations that substitute single amino-acid residues in an amino-terminal HEAT repeat impart reversible temperature-dependent cortical microtubule disruption, showing that MOR1 is essential for cortical microtubule organization.     

生长素在天仙子(Hyoscyamus niger)花粉形态发生中的效应

本文讨论了2,4—D、1AA、1BA、NOA、NAA、2,4,5—T 六种生长素对诱导天仙子花粉胚状体及愈伤组织的效应。实验表明:六种生长素对诱导天仙子花粉胚状体均有促进作用,其中以1BA、NAA 效率最高,其顺序为1BA、NAA、1AA、NOA、2,4,5—T、2,4—D。同一种生长素不同浓度诱导效应不同,一般低浓度对诱导胚状体有促进作用,高浓度有抑制作用。生长素诱导花粉愈伤组织的效应随不同种类而异,NOA 效应最显著,2,4—D 次之,而1AA、1BA 大多不形成愈伤组织。生长素不同种类和浓度对花粉分化速度和分化途径亦有明显差异,低浓度NOA易分化胚状体,高浓度多形成愈伤组织。又胚状体出现高峰早于愈伤组织.     

红萍大孢子的萌发

用GMA半薄切片和扫描电子显微镜观察不同萌发时期的红萍大孢子,从形态变化的过程可区分为四个阶段:①大孢子萌动前期.从大孢子果润水开始到原叶体母细胞上浮分裂止.②原叶体发育期.原叶体母细胞分裂发育形成原叶体.③颈卵器形成期.原叶体生长从三射缝突出大孢子之外,并形成颈卵器.④胚的生长发育期.卵成熟受精后,逐步发育成子叶、幼茎、基足和初生根.还讨论了形态发生与结构功能的关系.     

Ri质粒转化牛膝及其发状根的培养

用发根农杆菌的Ｒｉ质粒转化药用植物牛膝，诱导出了抗卡那霉素的发状根。将诱导的发状根进行固体平板培养和液体悬浮培养。在附加Ｋｍ３０ｍｇ／Ｌ的ＭＳｏ和１／２ＭＳｏ培养基上，发状根生长良好，而未经转化的对照组则死亡，表现出生激素自主性。在附中外源激素ＩＢＡ０．１ｍｇ／Ｌ和ＮＡＡ０．１ｍｇ／Ｌ时，能促进发状根的成活，侧根的形成以及提高增殖倍数。表明适量的外源激素能促进发状根的生长。     

二氧化硫对洋葱根尖生长及细胞分裂的影响

通过二氧化硫体内衍生物对洋葱根尖生长及细胞分裂的处理效应的研究结果表明，低浓度对洋葱根尖生长及细胞分裂没有影响；高浓度的(大于1．5～2．5mmol／L)亚硫酸氢钠能够抑制洋葱根尖的生长。同时使细胞有丝分裂指数下降，并诱发细胞分裂异常，且呈明显的时间效应和剂量效应。     

Auxin transport inhibitors block PIN1 cycling and vesicle trafficking

Polar transport of the phytohormone auxin mediates various processes in plant growth and development, such as apical dominance, tropisms, vascular patterning and axis formation. This view is based largely on the effects of polar auxin transport inhibitors. These compounds disrupt auxin efflux from the cell but their mode of action is unknown. It is thought that polar auxin flux is caused by the asymmetric distribution of efflux carriers acting at the plasma membrane. The polar localization of efflux carrier candidate PIN1 supports this model. Here we show that the seemingly static localization of PIN1 results from rapid actin-dependent cycling between the plasma membrane and endosomal compartments. Auxin transport inhibitors block PIN1 cycling and inhibit trafficking of membrane proteins that are unrelated to auxin transport. Our data suggest that PIN1 cycling is of central importance for auxin transport and that auxin transport inhibitors affect efflux by generally interfering with membrane-trafficking processes. In support of our conclusion, the vesicle-trafficking inhibitor brefeldin A mimics physiological effects of auxin transport inhibitors.     

Myosin-dependent junction remodelling controls planar cell intercalation and axis elongation

Shaping a developing organ or embryo relies on the spatial regulation of cell division and shape. However, morphogenesis also occurs through changes in cell-neighbourhood relationships produced by intercalation. Intercalation poses a special problem in epithelia because of the adherens junctions, which maintain the integrity of the tissue. Here we address the mechanism by which an ordered process of cell intercalation directs polarized epithelial morphogenesis during germ-band elongation, the developmental elongation of the Drosophila embryo. Intercalation progresses because junctions are spatially reorganized in the plane of the epithelium following an ordered pattern of disassembly and reassembly. The planar remodelling of junctions is not driven by external forces at the tissue boundaries but depends on local forces at cell boundaries. Myosin II is specifically enriched in disassembling junctions, and its planar polarized localization and activity are required for planar junction remodelling and cell intercalation. This simple cellular mechanism provides a general model for polarized morphogenesis in epithelial organs.     

Lateral relocation of auxin efflux regulator PIN3 mediates tropism in Arabidopsis

Long-standing models propose that plant growth responses to light or gravity are mediated by asymmetric distribution of the phytohormone auxin. Physiological studies implicated a specific transport system that relocates auxin laterally, thereby effecting differential growth; however, neither the molecular components of this system nor the cellular mechanism of auxin redistribution on light or gravity perception have been identified. Here, we show that auxin accumulates asymmetrically during differential growth in an efflux-dependent manner. Mutations in the Arabidopsis gene PIN3, a regulator of auxin efflux, alter differential growth. PIN3 is expressed in gravity-sensing tissues, with PIN3 protein accumulating predominantly at the lateral cell surface. PIN3 localizes to the plasma membrane and to vesicles that cycle in an actin-dependent manner. In the root columella, PIN3 is positioned symmetrically at the plasma membrane but rapidly relocalizes laterally on gravity stimulation. Our data indicate that PIN3 is a component of the lateral auxin transport system regulating tropic growth. In addition, actin-dependent relocalization of PIN3 in response to gravity provides a mechanism for redirecting auxin flux to trigger asymmetric growth.     

AhHDA1影响花生毛状根生长的研究

花生组蛋白去乙酰化酶AhHDA1转到花生毛状根中超表达后,短侧根的毛状根比例增加. 基因表达检测结果显示,AhHDA1超表达后上调了细胞周期相关基因AhCYCD4和生长素信号转导相关基因AhIAA28的表达水平,而AhARF19的表达水平被显著抑制. 进一步通过LUC实验发现, AhHDA1激活AhCYCD4和AhIAA28启动子的活性. 说明AhHDA1可能通过调控生长素信号转导和细胞分裂影响花生毛状根侧根的生长.     

二氧化硫对菘蓝根尖生长及细胞分裂的影响

以二倍体菘蓝为材料,研究二氧化硫对菘蓝根尖生长及细胞分裂的影响,结果表明:低浓度二氧化硫对菘蓝根尖生长及细胞分裂没有影响;高浓度的(1.5～2.5mmol/L)二氧化硫能够抑制菘蓝根尖的生长,同时使细胞有丝分裂指数、发芽率下降,并诱发细胞分裂异常,且呈明显的时间效应和剂量效应。     

寡毛双眉虫Diophrys oligothrix形态和形态发生的研究

报告了寡毛双眉虫(Diophrys. oligothrix) 的形态学特征以及它在无性分裂时期形态发生的全过程。观察了前仔虫口围带的形成过程,并将其与亲代的口围带进行比较,认为前仔虫口围带是经过重建的。从口器、大核等的情况反映出寡毛双眉虫与游仆虫、盾纤虫以及尾刺虫在进化上的关系。并认为前、后仔虫形成后仍继续恢复其典型的纤毛模式。     

巨型艾美耳球虫内生发育期超微结构的研究

鸡人工感染过巨型艾美耳球虫（Ｅｉｍｅｒｉａｍａｘｉｍａ）卵囊，巨型艾美耳球虫的裂殖生殖先由细胞核分裂，再在裂隙或缝隙处形成囊状突起，进而形成裂殖子，其过程伴随一系列细胞器的变化。小配子生成先由核伴随线粒体向周边移动，并向外隆起形成小配子的芽体，再进一步形成小配子。大配子形成过种中，胞浆内出现ＷＦＢ２和ＷＦＢ