Bat distribution and hibernacula use in west central Nevada

We captured 299 individuals of 11 bat species in mist-nets at 18 water sources in west central Nevada from June through August 1994. Myotis ciliolubrum, Pipistrellus hesperus, M. californicus , and Corynorhinus townsendii were the most common species captured. These species are apparently broadly distributed throughout west central Nevada, occurring in a variety of habitat types. We captured Euderma maculatum at 2 localities. These represent the 1st known records of this species in Esmeralda County, Nevada. Mine adits were surveyed for hibernating bats from December 1994 through February 1995. We determined the presence of 3 hibernating species: C. townsendii, M. ciliolabrum and P. hesperus . Bats were present in 19 of 70 mines (27%) we surveyed at elevations ranging from 1500 m to 2460 m. C. townsendii was the most common species encountered. Our study provides some much-needed baseline data on bat distribution and use of mines for hibernacula in west central Nevada.     

Bats of the Colorado oil shale region

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Habitat affinities of bats from northeastern Nevada

Bat surveys were completed in 6 habitat types in eastern Nevada between 1980 and 1994. Twelve species of bats and 578 individuals were identified from 33 trap localities in 144 trap nights. There were weak correlations between bat species richness and January maximum temperatures (0.728, P P Antrozous pallidus (from central Nye County north to the Nevada-Idaho border, approximately 450 km), Tadarida brasiliensis (approximately 350 km north), and Pipistrellus hesperus (approximately 350 km north). Also, the presence of Lasionycteris noctivagans, Lasiurus cinereus , and Corynorhinus townsendii was confirmed.     

Sharing the space: coexistence among terrestrial predators in Neotropical caves

The subterranean environment has a set of unique characteristics, including low thermic variation, high relative humidity, areas with total absence of light and high dependence on nutrient input from the epigean environment. Such characteristics promote distinct ecological conditions that support the existence of unique communities. In this work, we studied seven caves in the Presidente Olegário municipality, Minas Gerais state, Southeast Brazil, to determine their richness of predatory species, to understand how they are spatially distributed in the cave and whether their distribution is influenced by competition and/or predation. We carried out five surveys of the caves, with each cave divided into sampling plots. We collected fauna within the plots using a manual search method. The collected animals were fixed in 70% ethanol for later identification. We performed a canonical correspondence analysis to verify the spatial distribution and substrate preference of each species, and selected five species for agonistic interaction testing in the laboratory. We found a great richness of predators in the caves, with 79 species distributed among 22 families of spiders, five families of pseudoscorpions, three families of chilopods, two families of opilionids and one family each of scorpions and heteroptera. Spiders were the most species diverse and abundant of all arthropods we found in the caves. We recorded evidence of competition among some pairs of species but, in general, the spatial distribution of the predatory community in the interior of the caves seems to be unrelated to interspecies competition. The laboratory pairings support our field observations that most species merely share space, rather than exhibiting aggressive or predatory behaviour.     

The invertebrate fauna of the caves of the Uinta Mountains, northeastern Utah

Seven large caves in the Uinta Mountains, Utah, were surveyed for their invertebrate faunas. Thirty-eight species were found, and 30 of these are typical cave inhabitants. Diptera are the predominant group. Cave-restricted species are an amphipod, two diplurans, and possibly a Rhagidia mite. The caves were probablv uninhabitable in the past glacial because of severe periglacial environmental conditions, and the faunas have moved into the present cave sites since deglaciation of the Uintas.     

Terrestrial macroinvertebrates captured with a baited ramp-pitfall trap from five limestone caves in North Alabama and Georgia (USA) and their association with soil organic matter

Abundance and species richness of terrestrial cave invertebrates are not well known but are thought to be constrained by nutrient (food) supplies. A standard sampling procedure for collecting cave invertebrates does not exist. The majority of cave systems in the southeastern USA (e.g. Alabama and Georgia) have not been extensively sampled for invertebrates. We tested a baited ramp-pitfall trap for collecting terrestrial invertebrates from caves and investigated whether macroinvertebrate abundance and species richness follow total organic matter (TOM) levels from cave soils. In 14-day sampling periods, we captured 21,204 invertebrates from 14 orders comprising at least 44 species from five caves in north Alabama and Georgia. Diptera was the most frequently captured order, comprising 18 species and over 91% of our captures. Overall, our traps were successful at sampling terrestrial invertebrates from caves; however, species richness and abundance did not always correlate with TOM concentration.     

Bats associated with inactive mines in the Great Basin

We surveyed bats using echolocation calls near inactive mines in the western Great Basin from 2003 to 2007. We identified 14 species of bats during our surveys, with Myotis lucifugus and Lasionycteris noctivagans found at 9 sites and Myotis evotis and Tadarida brasiliensis at 7 sites; all other species were found at less than one-half of the sites. Euderma maculatum, a state-protected species in Nevada, was recorded at 2 sites. Our work provides information that will be useful in managing bat habitat, especially with regard to mining activities.     

Springtime movements, boost Use, and foraging activity of Townsend's big-eared bat ( Plecotus townsendii ) in central Oregon

Seasonal movements, roost-site fidelity, and foraging activity patterns are largely unknown for western populations of Townsend's big-eared bat ( Plecotus townsendii ). We used miniature radiotelemetry units to track springtime movements of six bats inhabiting forested lava flows in central Oregon, and found that bats moved up to 24 km from hibernacula to foraging areas. Individual bats returned to the same foraging area on successive nights but shifted to different areas in presumed response to changes in insect availability. Both sexes apparently use a series of interim roost sites between emergence from hibernation and the time females enter into maternity colonies, with little individual fidelity to these sites. In regions characterized by extensive lava-flow topography, suitable daytime roosts are numerous and dispersed over a large area, allowing bats to move relatively great distances to locate foraging ranges. Hence, the actual area of concern for effective management of individual populations can be considerably larger than indicated solely by locations of hibernacula and maternity caves of this declining species.     

Bats of the White and Inyo Mountains of California-nevada

We surveyed bats throughout the White and Inyo Mountains of California and Nevada. From December 1990 to November 1996, we surveyed hibernating bats, and foraging bats from June 1992 to September 1996. The White-Inyo Range rests in a unique biogeographical junction between the Sierra Nevada, Mojave Desert, and Great Basin Regions. Elevational gradients of 305-4340 m, combined with limited human development, further enhance the interest of natural history and faunal distributions in this range. We found 13 bat species in the course of 2668 observations. Three of these species, the spotted bat ( Euderma maculatum ), silver-haired bat ( Lasionycteris noctivagans ), and hoary bat ( Lasturus cinereus ), have no previous records from the White-Inyo Range. We found bats in all vegetation zones except alpine, 3500-4342 m. Despite an abundance of mines in this range, only Townsend's big-eared bat ( Corynorhinus townsendii ) and western small-footed myotis ( Myotis ciliolabrum ) used them routinely. Our data also indicated the importance of surface water to bat populations in arid regions.     

Invertebrate faunas and zoogeographic significance of lava tube caves of Arizona and New Mexico

A field survey in caves near Grants, New Mexico, and Flagstaff, Arizona, found only an exceptionally poor fauna of 14 species with no strong patterns of cave restriction. The faunal poverty is judged to be correlated with and influenced by the similarly impoverished boreal forests in nearby mountains. Species of flightless arthropods, suitable for cave colonization and restricted to cool-moist litter of boreal (Hudsonian-Canadian Life Zone) forests, are apparently not now present in suitable, nearby mountain habitats. They may not have dispersed to all available montane sites from the Southern Rocky Mountains during glacial conditions. Either the forests did not exist as continuous dispersal corridors for the litter arthropods, or the fauna could not track the rate of spread of the forests.     

Daily activity schedule,gregariousness, and defensive behaviour in the Neotropical harvestman Goniosoma longipes (Opiliones: Gonyleptidae)

In this paper we provide a field account of some aspects of the behavioural biology of Goniosoma longipes (Roewer), a harvestman which commonly occurs in caves in South-east Brazil. During daytime, solitary and aggregated individuals can be found resting on the cave walls. Just after sunset, however, many individuals leave the cave to forage for live and dead arthropods. Foraging individuals return to the cave before dawn. Aggregations of G. longipes contain on average 34 individuals (range 7-200), and the groups are usually found close to the water source and away from the cave entrance. The main predators of G. longipes are the spider Ctenus fasciatus Mello-Leitao (Ctenidae) and the opossum Philander opossum (L.) (Didelphidae). Upon disturbance solitary and aggregated individuals may either flee, or drop from the cave wall or vegetation. The harvestmen can also release a repugnatory liquid upon manipulation, and aggregated individuals collectively discharge this secretion toward the aggressor before fleeing. The activity schedule of G. longipes shows that individuals need to leave the cave periodically to forage, and therefore the population can be considered trogloxene. Data on the food items collected by G. longipes indicate that the harvestman is a generalist predator which also feeds on dead animal matter. Gregarious behaviour is considered relatively common among harvestmen and has been interpreted in several ways. We suggest that gregarious behaviour in G. longipes may be related with the choice of more suitable microconditions in the cave habitat and/or with group chemical defence.     

Temperature variation and the presence of troglobionts in terrestrial shallow subterranean habitats

Within the soil matrix and underlying rock, cracks and fissures and other air-filled spaces between rocks, sometimes called the milieu souterrain superficiel (MSS), are present in a variety of geological contexts. We examined year-long hourly temperature profiles at sites in lava in the Canary Islands and limestone in Slovenia. All sites had species that show morphological adaptations usually associated with cave-dwelling organisms, including elongated appendages and reduced eyes and pigment. MSS sites were studied at depths between 10 and 70 cm and showed strong seasonality, and most had a discernible diurnal cycle as well. The most striking difference from surface habitats was that the temperature extremes were much less pronounced in MSS sites. Temperature variability was not correlated with troglobiotic species richness. The presence of species with similar morphologies to those found in caves indicates that selective pressures are similar in cave and shallow subterranean habitats.     

A new species of the pseudoscorpion genus Megachernes (Pseudoscorpiones: Chernetidae) associated with a threatened Sri Lankan rainforest rodent,with a review of host associations of Megachernes

Most species of the Old World pseudoscorpion genus Megachernes are associated with mammals, either within their nests or in their pelage, whereas others are found in cave systems, usually in bat guano. The first Sri Lankan species of the genus, Megachernes kanneliyensis, is described from the fur of an endemic, threatened Sri Lankan mouse, Mus mayori pococki from the Kanneliya rainforest. The species is compared with other species of the genus. Host associations of all named and several unnamed species of Megachernes are reviewed, with two main habitat types, those found in mammal nests and in their pelage, and those found in bat guano. Based on similarities with Megachernes, Chiridiochernes is transferred to Lamprochernetinae as the spermathecae are T-shaped, the sole diagnostic feature of the subfamily.     

Habitat use and food selection of small mammals near a sagebrush/crested wheatgrass interface in southeastern Idaho

Habitat use and food selection data were collected for deer mice ( Peromyscus maniculatus ), montane voles ( Microtus montanus ), Ord's kangaroo rats ( Dipodomys ordii ), and Townsend's ground squirrels ( Spermophilus townsendii ) near a sagebrush ( Artemisia tridentata )/crested wheatgrass ( Agropyron cristatum ) interface in southeastem Idaho. Significantly more captures occurred in the native sagebrush habitat than in areas planted in crested wheatgrass or in disturbed sites. Crested wheatgrass, a prolific seed producer, still accounted for over 30% of the total captures. Montane voles and Townsend's ground squirrels (during periods of aboveground activity) used the crested wheatgrass habitat throughout the summer, while deer mice and, Ord's kangaroo rats exhibited heavy use after seed set.     

Taxonomy and ecology of two endemic freshwater crabs from western Jamaica with the description of a new Sesarma species (Brachyura: Grapsidae: Sesarminae)

The type series of the Jamaican grapsid crab Sesarma windsor Türkay and Diesel, 1994, was re-examined and found to consist of two distinct forms. The holotype represented a form so far only recorded from a freshwater cave in western Jamaica. The other form inhabits burrows in the banks of mountain creeks in western Jamaica and is assigned to a new species, Sesarma fossarum sp. n. Both species are fully described and morphological differences partly interpreted as adaptations to the habitats where they occur. The new species and S. bidentatum Benedict, 1892, both from mountain creeks, closely resemble the cavernicolous S. windsor which suggests a fairly recent invasion of the cave habitat by the latter.     

Evolutionary differentiation within the northern Great Basin pocket gopher, Thomomys townsendii II. Genetic variation and biogeographic considerations

Geographic and nongeographic variation in morphology was examined in Thomomys townsendii . A univariate analysis of external and cranial characters from a large population sample (66 adults; fusion of cranial sutures used as aging criteria) was used to assess variation among three adult age classes and between sexes. Only minor variation is apparent among age classes; however, sexual dimorphism is pronounced. Univariate and multivariate techniques were used to analyze external and cranial measurements and pelage characters for adults throughout the species range. These analyses show little to support the seven subspecific designations recognized by Davis (1937). The general pattern is one of homogeneity throughout the range of Thomomys townsendii . With the possible exception of T. t. nevadensis samples, current subspecies are not defined as morphological units. In fact, differentiation is found among populations within some subspecies. The most apparent pattern seen in these analyses is the divergence between the Humboldt River (including Honey Lake Valley samples) and Snake River systems. These results will be considered with those of a companion paper on the genetic variation in this species to more adequately assess the patterns of differentiation in Thomomys townsendii .     

Can we agree on an ecological classification of subterranean animals?

That the ties between any obligate subterranean species and the hypogean environment depend on the interplay of a species' own physiological characteristics and all of the ecological characteristics of the adjacent epigean habitat(s), including biotic factors, has been emphasized. The reasons why troglomorphy cannot be included within criteria for classifying cave dwellers have been demonstrated. After a review of historic classifications, standardized definitions of the most widely used terms are proposed. The most easily recognized are four categories which are terminological approximations of the classic Schiner‐Racovitza terminology: (1) troglobiont is a species or population, strictly bound to a hypogean habitat; (2) eutroglophile is an essentially epigean species, but able to maintain a permanent subterranean population; (3) subtroglophile is inclined perpetually or temporarily to inhabit a subterranean habitat but is bound to the surface for some biological functions (e.g. feeding); (4) trogloxene is a species only occurring sporadically underground.     

Evolutionary differentiation within the northern Great Basin pocket gopher, Thomomys townsendii I. Morphological variation

Geographic and nongeographic variation in morphology was examined in Thomomys townsendii . A univariate analysis of external and cranial characters from a large population sample (66 adults; fusion of cranial sutures used as aging criteria) was used to assess variation among three adult age classes and between sexes. Only minor variation is apparent among age classes; however, sexual dimorphism is pronounced. Univariate and multivariate techniques were used to analyze external and cranial measurements and pelage characters for adults throughout the species range. These analyses show little to support the seven subspecific designations recognized by Davis (1937). The general pattern is one of homogeneity throughout the range of Thomomys townsendii . With the possible exception of T. t. nevadensis samples, current subspecies are not defined as morphological units. In fact, differentiation is found among populations within some subspecies. The most apparent pattern seen in these analyses is the divergence between the Humboldt River (including Honey Lake Valley samples) and Snake River systems. These results will be considered with those of a companion paper on the genetic variation in this species to more adequately assess the patterns of differentiation in Thomomys townsendii .     

Diet comparison between rainforest and cave populations of Craugastor alfredi (Anura: Craugastoridae): does diet vary in contrasting habitats?

Information about interpopulational variation of diet is important for thoroughly understanding the ecological niche of a species, the possible attributes that have allowed it to live in different habitats and ecosystems (if it is the case) and the degree of dietary specialization. This study compared dietary composition and diversity, size of prey consumed and feeding intensity between two geographically proximate populations of Craugastor alfredi, inhabiting contrasting habitats: one located in a remnant tropical rainforest and the other population located within a cave entrance, in eastern Mexico. A total of 118 frogs (50 from rainforest and 68 from cave) were stomach-flushed and, from those, 86 had at least one prey item (42 from rainforest and 44 from cave). Consumption proportions of orthopterans differed between habitats, with frogs from the cave having higher importance values of this prey than frogs from the rainforest. Additionally, both dietary diversity and feeding intensity were higher in the rainforest population. It was concluded that the generalized diet of C. alfredi, besides the high consumption of orthopterans by the cave population, may have contributed to its success in cave entrances. Nonetheless, other non-feeding attributes like small body size, direct development and semiarboreality may also facilitate the use of rock crevices in caves for foraging and reproduction.     

Camera traps reveal use of caves by Asiatic black bears (Ursus thibetanus gedrosianus) (Mammalia: Ursidae) in southeastern Iran

The Baluchistan region of Iran and Pakistan is inhabited by one of the most threatened populations of Asiatic black bears (Ursus thibetanus gedrosianus) in Asia. The first camera-trapping survey of these so-called Baluchistan bears was conducted in Bahr-e Asman Mountain, southeastern Iran. Fourteen camera traps were installed in the entrances of caves from April to December, 2009. A total of 32 bear photographs were obtained from three caves. Data analysis of photographs showed the presence of at least seven different individuals: two lone bears, and two family groups, with one and two cubs. Despite being very marginal habitat, affected both by human use and drought, the area supports a reproducing population of bears. This study suggests that caves may be important in the life history of these bears, and should be protected for their conservation.