Macrophage-specific PPARgamma controls alternative activation and improves insulin resistance

Obesity and insulin resistance, the cardinal features of metabolic syndrome, are closely associated with a state of low-grade inflammation. In adipose tissue chronic overnutrition leads to macrophage infiltration, resulting in local inflammation that potentiates insulin resistance. For instance, transgenic expression of Mcp1 (also known as chemokine ligand 2, Ccl2) in adipose tissue increases macrophage infiltration, inflammation and insulin resistance. Conversely, disruption of Mcp1 or its receptor Ccr2 impairs migration of macrophages into adipose tissue, thereby lowering adipose tissue inflammation and improving insulin sensitivity. These findings together suggest a correlation between macrophage content in adipose tissue and insulin resistance. However, resident macrophages in tissues display tremendous heterogeneity in their activities and functions, primarily reflecting their local metabolic and immune microenvironment. While Mcp1 directs recruitment of pro-inflammatory classically activated macrophages to sites of tissue damage, resident macrophages, such as those present in the adipose tissue of lean mice, display the alternatively activated phenotype. Despite their higher capacity to repair tissue, the precise role of alternatively activated macrophages in obesity-induced insulin resistance remains unknown. Using mice with macrophage-specific deletion of the peroxisome proliferator activated receptor-gamma (PPARgamma), we show here that PPARgamma is required for maturation of alternatively activated macrophages. Disruption of PPARgamma in myeloid cells impairs alternative macrophage activation, and predisposes these animals to development of diet-induced obesity, insulin resistance, and glucose intolerance. Furthermore, gene expression profiling revealed that downregulation of oxidative phosphorylation gene expression in skeletal muscle and liver leads to decreased insulin sensitivity in these tissues. Together, our findings suggest that resident alternatively activated macrophages have a beneficial role in regulating nutrient homeostasis and suggest that macrophage polarization towards the alternative state might be a useful strategy for treating type 2 diabetes.     

MicroRNAs 103 and 107 regulate insulin sensitivity

Defects in insulin signalling are among the most common and earliest defects that predispose an individual to the development of type 2 diabetes. MicroRNAs have been identified as a new class of regulatory molecules that influence many biological functions, including metabolism. However, the direct regulation of insulin sensitivity by microRNAs in vivo has not been demonstrated. Here we show that the expression of microRNAs 103 and 107 (miR-103/107) is upregulated in obese mice. Silencing of miR-103/107 leads to improved glucose homeostasis and insulin sensitivity. In contrast, gain of miR-103/107 function in either liver or fat is sufficient to induce impaired glucose homeostasis. We identify caveolin-1, a critical regulator of the insulin receptor, as a direct target gene of miR-103/107. We demonstrate that caveolin-1 is upregulated upon miR-103/107 inactivation in adipocytes and that this is concomitant with stabilization of the insulin receptor, enhanced insulin signalling, decreased adipocyte size and enhanced insulin-stimulated glucose uptake. These findings demonstrate the central importance of miR-103/107 to insulin sensitivity and identify a new target for the treatment of type 2 diabetes and obesity.     

Small molecule activators of SIRT1 as therapeutics for the treatment of type 2 diabetes

Calorie restriction extends lifespan and produces a metabolic profile desirable for treating diseases of ageing such as type 2 diabetes. SIRT1, an NAD+-dependent deacetylase, is a principal modulator of pathways downstream of calorie restriction that produce beneficial effects on glucose homeostasis and insulin sensitivity. Resveratrol, a polyphenolic SIRT1 activator, mimics the anti-ageing effects of calorie restriction in lower organisms and in mice fed a high-fat diet ameliorates insulin resistance, increases mitochondrial content, and prolongs survival. Here we describe the identification and characterization of small molecule activators of SIRT1 that are structurally unrelated to, and 1,000-fold more potent than, resveratrol. These compounds bind to the SIRT1 enzyme-peptide substrate complex at an allosteric site amino-terminal to the catalytic domain and lower the Michaelis constant for acetylated substrates. In diet-induced obese and genetically obese mice, these compounds improve insulin sensitivity, lower plasma glucose, and increase mitochondrial capacity. In Zucker fa/fa rats, hyperinsulinaemic-euglycaemic clamp studies demonstrate that SIRT1 activators improve whole-body glucose homeostasis and insulin sensitivity in adipose tissue, skeletal muscle and liver. Thus, SIRT1 activation is a promising new therapeutic approach for treating diseases of ageing such as type 2 diabetes.     

Reactive oxygen species have a causal role in multiple forms of insulin resistance

Insulin resistance is a cardinal feature of type 2 diabetes and is characteristic of a wide range of other clinical and experimental settings. Little is known about why insulin resistance occurs in so many contexts. Do the various insults that trigger insulin resistance act through a common mechanism? Or, as has been suggested, do they use distinct cellular pathways? Here we report a genomic analysis of two cellular models of insulin resistance, one induced by treatment with the cytokine tumour-necrosis factor-alpha and the other with the glucocorticoid dexamethasone. Gene expression analysis suggests that reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels are increased in both models, and we confirmed this through measures of cellular redox state. ROS have previously been proposed to be involved in insulin resistance, although evidence for a causal role has been scant. We tested this hypothesis in cell culture using six treatments designed to alter ROS levels, including two small molecules and four transgenes; all ameliorated insulin resistance to varying degrees. One of these treatments was tested in obese, insulin-resistant mice and was shown to improve insulin sensitivity and glucose homeostasis. Together, our findings suggest that increased ROS levels are an important trigger for insulin resistance in numerous settings.     

2型糖尿病伴随高脂血症大鼠模型的建立及二甲双胍的干预

目的研究5%蔗糖饮水和高脂饮食加链脲佐菌素诱导2型糖尿病伴随高脂血症大鼠模型的建立及二甲双胍的治疗作用。方法SD大鼠一次性腹腔注射30 mg/kg链脲佐菌素,给予高脂饮食和5%蔗糖水喂养68 d后进行糖耐量实验,采血检测空腹血糖、血脂、胰岛素、抗氧化水平。结果与对照组比较,模型大鼠空腹血糖、糖耐量试验2 h后血糖、糖化血红蛋白、血清胰岛素和胰岛素抵抗指数显著升高(P<0.05),胰岛素敏感指数显著降低(P<0.05),TG、TC和FFA含量明显升高(P<0.05),SOD活力明显降低(P<0.05),MDA含量显著增加(P<0.05);二甲双胍组胆固醇、游离脂肪酸、空腹血糖、糖耐量异常、糖化血红蛋白、血清胰岛素和胰岛素抵抗指数、MDA显著降低(P<0.05),胰岛素敏感指数和SOD活力显著提高(P<0.05)。结论5%蔗糖饮水能改善大鼠的厌食症状,加上链脲佐菌素的小剂量注射和高脂饮食,可成功复制2型糖尿病大鼠模型,伴随高脂血症和抗氧化损伤。二甲双胍具有降糖、降脂、抗氧化、改善胰岛素抵抗作用,可作为2型糖尿病伴随高脂血症大鼠模型研究的阳性治疗药物。     

不同糖耐量人群尿C肽肌酐比值与胰岛β细胞功能和胰岛素抵抗的关系研究

目的探讨不同糖耐量人群尿C肽肌酐比值与胰岛β细胞功能和胰岛素抵抗的关系.方法选取内分泌科就诊患者,根据75 g葡萄糖耐量检查结果分为正常糖耐量组72例,糖调节受损组54例,Ⅱ型糖尿病组94例.行静脉葡萄糖耐量实验,检测0~10 min胰岛素水平,计算急性胰岛素反应(AIR3-5)、0~10 min胰岛素曲线下面积(AUC)、稳态模型胰岛素抵抗指数(HOMA-IR)、胰岛β细胞功能指数(HOMA-β);留取受试者清晨空腹第1次、第2次尿液样和24 h尿样本,酶法检测尿肌酐值,化学发光法检测C肽水平,计算C肽肌酐比值.结果糖调节受损组、Ⅱ型糖尿病组空腹血糖、餐后2 h血糖、空腹胰岛素、餐后2 h胰岛素、糖化血红蛋白、HOMA-IR均明显高于正常糖耐量组,差异具有统计学意义(P0.05);而肾小球滤过率在3组间差异无统计学意义(P0.05).糖调节受损组、Ⅱ型糖尿病组AIR3-5、AUC、HOMA-β、第1次尿C肽肌酐比值、第2次尿C肽肌酐比值、24 h尿C肽明显高于正常糖耐量组,差异具有统计学意义(P0.05).第1次和第2次尿C肽/尿肌酐比值与AIR3-5,AUC,HOMA-β呈负相关,与HOMA-IR呈正相关,其中以第2次C肽尿肌酐比值相关性最佳.结论尿C肽肌酐比值在Ⅱ型糖尿病及糖调节受损个体中明显升高,且与胰岛β细胞第一时相分泌功能、胰岛素抵抗有直接相关性.     

Adipose-selective targeting of the GLUT4 gene impairs insulin action in muscle and liver

The earliest defect in developing type 2 diabetes is insulin resistance, characterized by decreased glucose transport and metabolism in muscle and adipocytes. The glucose transporter GLUT4 mediates insulin-stimulated glucose uptake in adipocytes and muscle by rapidly moving from intracellular storage sites to the plasma membrane. In insulin-resistant states such as obesity and type 2 diabetes, GLUT4 expression is decreased in adipose tissue but preserved in muscle. Because skeletal muscle is the main site of insulin-stimulated glucose uptake, the role of adipose tissue GLUT4 downregulation in the pathogenesis of insulin resistance and diabetes is unclear. To determine the role of adipose GLUT4 in glucose homeostasis, we used Cre/loxP DNA recombination to generate mice with adipose-selective reduction of GLUT4 (G4A-/-). Here we show that these mice have normal growth and adipose mass despite markedly impaired insulin-stimulated glucose uptake in adipocytes. Although GLUT4 expression is preserved in muscle, these mice develop insulin resistance in muscle and liver, manifested by decreased biological responses and impaired activation of phosphoinositide-3-OH kinase. G4A-/- mice develop glucose intolerance and hyperinsulinaemia. Thus, downregulation of GLUT4 and glucose transport selectively in adipose tissue can cause insulin resistance and thereby increase the risk of developing diabetes.     

Hypoinsulinaemia, glucose intolerance and diminished beta-cell size in S6K1-deficient mice

Insulin controls glucose homeostasis by regulating glucose use in peripheral tissues, and its own production and secretion in pancreatic beta cells. These responses are largely mediated downstream of the insulin receptor substrates, IRS-1 and IRS-2 (refs 4-8), through distinct signalling pathways. Although a number of effectors of these pathways have been identified, their roles in mediating glucose homeostasis are poorly defined. Here we show that mice deficient for S6 kinase 1, an effector of the phosphatidylinositide-3-OH kinase signalling pathway, are hypoinsulinaemic and glucose intolerant. Whereas insulin resistance is not observed in isolated muscle, such mice exhibit a sharp reduction in glucose-induced insulin secretion and in pancreatic insulin content. This is not due to a lesion in glucose sensing or insulin production, but to a reduction in pancreatic endocrine mass, which is accounted for by a selective decrease in beta-cell size. The observed phenotype closely parallels those of preclinical type 2 diabetes mellitus, in which malnutrition-induced hypoinsulinaemia predisposes individuals to glucose intolerance.     

A central role for JNK in obesity and insulin resistance

Obesity is closely associated with insulin resistance and establishes the leading risk factor for type 2 diabetes mellitus, yet the molecular mechanisms of this association are poorly understood. The c-Jun amino-terminal kinases (JNKs) can interfere with insulin action in cultured cells and are activated by inflammatory cytokines and free fatty acids, molecules that have been implicated in the development of type 2 diabetes. Here we show that JNK activity is abnormally elevated in obesity. Furthermore, an absence of JNK1 results in decreased adiposity, significantly improved insulin sensitivity and enhanced insulin receptor signalling capacity in two different models of mouse obesity. Thus, JNK is a crucial mediator of obesity and insulin resistance and a potential target for therapeutics.     

Mechanisms linking obesity to insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes

Obesity is associated with an increased risk of developing insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes. In obese individuals, adipose tissue releases increased amounts of non-esterified fatty acids, glycerol, hormones, pro-inflammatory cytokines and other factors that are involved in the development of insulin resistance. When insulin resistance is accompanied by dysfunction of pancreatic islet beta-cells - the cells that release insulin - failure to control blood glucose levels results. Abnormalities in beta-cell function are therefore critical in defining the risk and development of type 2 diabetes. This knowledge is fostering exploration of the molecular and genetic basis of the disease and new approaches to its treatment and prevention.     

Serum retinol binding protein 4 contributes to insulin resistance in obesity and type 2 diabetes

In obesity and type 2 diabetes, expression of the GLUT4 glucose transporter is decreased selectively in adipocytes. Adipose-specific Glut4 (also known as Slc2a4) knockout (adipose-Glut4(-/-)) mice show insulin resistance secondarily in muscle and liver. Here we show, using DNA arrays, that expression of retinol binding protein-4 (RBP4) is elevated in adipose tissue of adipose-Glut4(-/-) mice. We show that serum RBP4 levels are elevated in insulin-resistant mice and humans with obesity and type 2 diabetes. RBP4 levels are normalized by rosiglitazone, an insulin-sensitizing drug. Transgenic overexpression of human RBP4 or injection of recombinant RBP4 in normal mice causes insulin resistance. Conversely, genetic deletion of Rbp4 enhances insulin sensitivity. Fenretinide, a synthetic retinoid that increases urinary excretion of RBP4, normalizes serum RBP4 levels and improves insulin resistance and glucose intolerance in mice with obesity induced by a high-fat diet. Increasing serum RBP4 induces hepatic expression of the gluconeogenic enzyme phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK) and impairs insulin signalling in muscle. Thus, RBP4 is an adipocyte-derived 'signal' that may contribute to the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes. Lowering RBP4 could be a new strategy for treating type 2 diabetes.     

Mechanisms linking obesity with cardiovascular disease

Obesity increases the risk of cardiovascular disease and premature death. Adipose tissue releases a large number of bioactive mediators that influence not only body weight homeostasis but also insulin resistance - the core feature of type 2 diabetes - as well as alterations in lipids, blood pressure, coagulation, fibrinolysis and inflammation, leading to endothelial dysfunction and atherosclerosis. We are now beginning to understand the underlying mechanisms as well as the ways in which smoking and dyslipidaemia increase, and physical activity attenuates, the adverse effects of obesity on cardiovascular health.     

三个品系小型猪Ⅱ型糖尿病模型的比较研究

目的比较三个品系小型猪对高糖高脂饲料诱发Ⅱ型糖尿病模型的敏感性,为我国小型猪在Ⅱ型糖尿病研究中的应用提供基础资料。方法4~5月龄巴马小型猪、五指山小型猪和中国农大小型猪各6头,以4头中国农大小型猪为对照,同步开展高糖高脂饲料喂养试验,试验周期8个月。每月称1次体重,测定血糖、血清胰岛素含量,每2个月进行1次静脉葡萄糖耐量试验(IVGTT),测定脂质代谢相关指标。结果巴马小型猪和五指山小型猪对高糖、高脂饲料比较敏感,在饲喂5~6个月后,开始出现糖代谢异常,表现为显著肥胖、血清胰岛素升高和胰岛素敏感性下降。至实验后8个月,巴马小型猪和五指山小型猪各有1头发展为糖尿病,分别有3头和2头出现糖尿病前期症状。中国农大小型猪对高糖高脂饲料诱发糖尿病相对不敏感,实验期间空腹血糖水平、血清胰岛素含量、胰岛素敏感指数和IVGTT一直无显著变化,仅在实验后7个月开始表现肥胖,8个月出现胰岛素敏感性减低。三个品系小型猪在高糖高脂饲喂后,血脂相关指标(TG,CHO,HDL-C,LDL-C)普遍升高,以巴马小型猪升高幅度最大。结论巴马小型猪和五指山小型猪对高糖、高脂饲料诱发Ⅱ型糖尿病比较敏感,品系内个体差异较大。中国农大小型猪相对不敏感。这一结果为进一步的Ⅱ型糖尿病相关基因分析和高敏感家系培育研究提供了基础资料。     

Effect of dehydroepiandrosterone on insulin action and development of insulin-induced resistance in C2C12 muscle cells

Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), a precursor of androgens and estrogens, has been demonstrated to have effect of preventing insulin resistance and development of diabetes mellitus. Administration of testosterone appears to induce a marked insulin resistance. How these two hormones affect insulin resistance through regulation of sensitivity of tissues to insulin deserves further studies. Here, the effects of DHEA and testosterone on response to insulin in C2C12 muscle cells are analyzed. After 24 h of DHEA (10-6 mol/L) treatment, C2C12 cells showed an increased insulin- stimulated glucose uptake and enhanced activities of glycogen synthase (GS), phosphofructokinase (PFK) and pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH), whereas testosterone gave the opposite effects. Incubation of C2C12 cells with high-dose insulin (5×10-7 mol/L) for 24 hours decreased their sensitivity to insulin and led to a state of resistance as assessed on insulin-stimulated glucose uptake and activities of GS, PFK and PDH. Addition of DHEA to insulin-resistant C2C12 cells could reverse the response of these cells to high-dose insulin, but testosterone could further impair insulin sensitivity in insulin-resistant C2C12 cells. These results suggest that the two hormones may influence the development or inhibition of insulin-resistance in type 2 diabetes through regulating glucose uptake, glycogenesis and glycolysis to some extent.     

罗格列酮对老年2型糖尿病合并高血压患者血压的影响

目的:观察胰岛素增敏剂罗格列酮用于老年2型糖尿病合并高血压的患者时,降低血浆胰岛素水平以及改善胰岛素敏感性后对血压的影响。方法:23例老年2型糖尿病合并高血压患者口服罗格列酮(文迪雅)4mg～8mg,1次/日。治疗前后测定BMI、血压、HbA_(1C)、FBG、PBG、FINS、PINS,并按HOMA模型计算胰岛素抵抗指数、胰岛素分泌指数和药物的不良反应。结果:(1)罗格列酮治疗12周后,BMI治疗前后比较无显著性差异;血压治疗后明显下降,降压幅度达(6.75±0.03)/(7.25±0.53)mmHg,与治疗前比较有显著性差异。(2)治疗后HbA_(1C)、FBG、PBG、FINS、PINS均明显下降,治疗前后比较有显著性差异。(3)治疗后HOMA-IR下降,IAI升高,与治疗前比较有显著性差异,FINS/FBG无显著性差异。(4)我国老年患者使用罗格列酮的安全性及耐受性较好。结论:罗格列酮治疗中国老年2型糖尿病患者,能降低血浆胰岛素水平,改善IR,显著降低收缩压和舒张压;且其安全性、耐受性均较好。     

The lipid phosphatase SHIP2 controls insulin sensitivity

Insulin is the primary hormone involved in glucose homeostasis, and impairment of insulin action and/or secretion has a critical role in the pathogenesis of diabetes mellitus. Type-II SH2-domain-containing inositol 5-phosphatase, or 'SHIP2', is a member of the inositol polyphosphate 5-phosphatase family. In vitro studies have shown that SHIP2, in response to stimulation by numerous growth factors and insulin, is closely linked to signalling events mediated by both phosphoinositide-3-OH kinase and Ras/mitogen-activated protein kinase. Here we report the generation of mice lacking the SHIP2 gene. Loss of SHIP2 leads to increased sensitivity to insulin, which is characterized by severe neonatal hypoglycaemia, deregulated expression of the genes involved in gluconeogenesis, and perinatal death. Adult mice that are heterozygous for the SHIP2 mutation have increased glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity associated with an increased recruitment of the GLUT4 glucose transporter and increased glycogen synthesis in skeletal muscles. Our results show that SHIP2 is a potent negative regulator of insulin signalling and insulin sensitivity in vivo.     

胰岛素瘤切除术后对血清激素、癌胚抗原水平及胰岛功能的影响

 探究了胰岛素瘤切除术前后患者血清激素、癌胚抗原（carcinoembryonic antigen，CEA）及胰岛功能指标水平变化，发现术后1 d患者胰岛β细胞功能指数（homeostasis model assess-ment-β，HOMA-β）、胰岛素敏感性指数（insulin sensitivity index，ISI）降低，胰岛素抵抗指数（homeostasis model assessment of insulin resistance，HOMA-IR）及血糖水平升高，CEA水平先增后降，差异有统计学意义（P<0.05）；与术后5 d相比，术后10 d及15 d患者HOMA-β、ISI水平升高，HOMA-IR水平降低；术后15 d胰岛素水平为（14.16±3.06）μU/L，但显著低于术前（32.07±5.75）μU/L，血糖水平降至（4.62±0.31）mmol/L，显著高于术前（2.12±0.59）mmol/L，术后1 d患者CEA水平高于术前，随后逐渐降低，差异有统计学意义（P>0.05）。CEA水平与各指标显著相关。胰岛功能指标、血清激素及CEA水平术后短时间内可引起胰岛素水平的异常降低和血糖水平的急剧升高，可作为预后指标。     

运动对2型糖尿病胰岛素抵抗相关因子的影响研究

通过分析运动对2型糖尿病胰岛素抵抗的相关因子的影响,发现2型糖尿病主要是胰岛素抵抗和胰岛素分泌受损所导致.因此,只要了解胰腺β细胞的胰岛素抵抗程度,就可以加以弥补,使葡萄糖耐受性维持正常.     

核受体Rev-erbs的能量稳态调控作用及其运动科学研究展望

 核受体Rev-erbs是能量稳态调控的核心转录调节因子,其表达受饮食、药物、运动等因素的影响;Rev-erbs参与糖脂代谢、胰岛素分泌、血糖稳态调节等多个生物学过程,是肥胖症、糖尿病等慢性代谢性疾病治疗的重要药物靶标,通过调节糖脂代谢通路中的靶分子,调控组织的能量稳态。运动干预刺激肝脏、骨骼肌等组织中Rev-erbs表达,调控糖脂代谢基因,维持细胞能量稳态,可能是慢性病运动干预的重要适应机制。简述了Rev-erbs的结构特点、表达调控因素与作用机制,分析了运动干预对Rev-erbs表达的影响与代谢调控机制,以及Rev-erbs在运动科学领域的国际前沿和发展趋势。     

Pancreatic amylin and calcitonin gene-related peptide cause resistance to insulin in skeletal muscle in vitro

Insulin resistance occurs in a variety of conditions, including diabetes, obesity and essential hypertension, but its underlying molecular mechanisms are unclear. In type 2 (non-insulin-dependent) diabetes mellitus, it is insulin-resistance in skeletal muscle, the chief site of insulin-mediated glucose disposal in humans, that predominantly accounts for the low rates of glucose clearance from the blood, and hence for impaired glucose tolerance. Human type 2 diabetes is characterized by a decrease in non-oxidative glucose storage (muscle glycogen synthesis), and by the deposition of amyloid in the islets of Langerhans. Amylin is a 37-amino-acid peptide which is a major component of islet amyloid and has structural similarity to human calcitonin gene-related peptide-2 (CGRP-2; ref. 8). CGRP is a neuropeptide which may be involved in motor activity in skeletal muscle. We now report that human pancreatic amylin and rat CGRP-1 are potent inhibitors of both basal and insulin-stimulated rates of glycogen synthesis in stripped rat soleus muscle in vitro. These results may provide a basis for a new understanding of the molecular mechanisms that cause insulin resistance in skeletal muscle.