Geochemical evidence for magmatic water within Mars from pyroxenes in the Shergotty meteorite

Observations of martian surface morphology have been used to argue that an ancient ocean once existed on Mars. It has been thought that significant quantities of such water could have been supplied to the martian surface through volcanic outgassing, but this suggestion is contradicted by the low magmatic water content that is generally inferred from chemical analyses of igneous martian meteorites. Here, however, we report the distributions of trace elements within pyroxenes of the Shergotty meteorite--a basalt body ejected 175 million years ago from Mars--as well as hydrous and anhydrous crystallization experiments that, together, imply that water contents of pre-eruptive magma on Mars could have been up to 1.8%. We found that in the Shergotty meteorite, the inner cores of pyroxene minerals (which formed at depth in the martian crust) are enriched in soluble trace elements when compared to the outer rims (which crystallized on or near to the martian surface). This implies that water was present in pyroxenes at depth but was largely lost as pyroxenes were carried to the surface during magma ascent. We conclude that ascending magmas possibly delivered significant quantities of water to the martian surface in recent times, reconciling geologic and petrologic constraints on the outgassing history of Mars.     

江汉盆地白垩系沉积相与沉积演化

在对江汉盆地露头剖面野外实测、钻井及分析化验资料综合研究的基础上,运用层序地层学、沉积学和测井地质学原理,识别了白垩系层序及沉积相类型、沉积特征。研究表明, 受燕山期幕式构造运动的影响,白垩系可划分为两个构造层序,主要发育冲积扇、辫状河、辫状河三角洲和氧化型湖泊四种主要沉积相类型;早白垩世,由于拉张断陷强度较弱,仅在盆地边缘断裂前缘的局部地区发育一套粒度较粗的冲积扇-辫状河砂砾岩沉积;至晚白垩世,在区域引张力的作用下盆地整体拉伸断陷,从盆缘往盆内方向依次发育冲积扇—辫状河—三角洲—氧化型湖泊沉积,构成一个自下而上粒度由粗变细的沉积序列。     

Inhibition of carbonate synthesis in acidic oceans on early Mars

Several lines of evidence have recently reinforced the hypothesis that an ocean existed on early Mars. Carbonates are accordingly expected to have formed from oceanic sedimentation of carbon dioxide from the ancient martian atmosphere. But spectral imaging of the martian surface has revealed the presence of only a small amount of carbonate, widely distributed in the martian dust. Here we examine the feasibility of carbonate synthesis in ancient martian oceans using aqueous equilibrium calculations. We show that partial pressures of atmospheric carbon dioxide in the range 0.8-4 bar, in the presence of up to 13.5 mM sulphate and 0.8 mM iron in sea water, result in an acidic oceanic environment with a pH of less than 6.2. This precludes the formation of siderite, usually expected to be the first major carbonate mineral to precipitate. We conclude that extensive interaction between an atmosphere dominated by carbon dioxide and a lasting sulphate- and iron-enriched acidic ocean on early Mars is a plausible explanation for the observed absence of carbonates.     

Impact erosion of the primordial atmosphere of Mars

Abundant geomorphic evidence for fluvial processes on the surface of Mars suggests that during the era of heavy bombardment, Mars's atmospheric pressure was high enough for liquid water to flow on the surface. Many authors have proposed mechanisms by which Mars could have lost (or sequestered) an earlier, thicker atmosphere but none of these proposals has gained general acceptance. Here we examine the process of atmospheric erosion by impacts and show that it may account for an early episode of atmosphere loss from Mars. On the basis of this model, the primordial atmospheric pressure on Mars must have been in the vicinity of 1 bar, barring other sources or sinks of CO2. Current impact fluxes are too small to erode significantly the present martian atmosphere.     

Early geochemical environment of Mars as determined from thermodynamics of phyllosilicates

Images of geomorphological features that seem to have been produced by the action of liquid water have been considered evidence for wet surface conditions on early Mars. Moreover, the recent identification of large deposits of phyllosilicates, associated with the ancient Noachian terrains suggests long-timescale weathering of the primary basaltic crust by liquid water. It has been proposed that a greenhouse effect resulting from a carbon-dioxide-rich atmosphere sustained the temperate climate required to maintain liquid water on the martian surface during the Noachian. The apparent absence of carbonates and the low escape rates of carbon dioxide, however, are indicative of an early martian atmosphere with low levels of carbon dioxide. Here we investigate the geochemical conditions prevailing on the surface of Mars during the Noachian period using calculations of the aqueous equilibria of phyllosilicates. Our results show that Fe3+-rich phyllosilicates probably precipitated under weakly acidic to alkaline pH, an environment different from that of the following period, which was dominated by strongly acid weathering that led to the sulphate deposits identified on Mars. Thermodynamic calculations demonstrate that the oxidation state of the martian surface was already high, supporting early escape of hydrogen. Finally, equilibrium with carbonates implies that phyllosilicate precipitation occurs preferentially at a very low partial pressure of carbon dioxide. We suggest that the possible absence of Noachian carbonates more probably resulted from low levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide, rather than primary acidic conditions. Other greenhouse gases may therefore have played a part in sustaining a warm and wet climate on the early Mars.     

Perennial water ice identified in the south polar cap of Mars

The inventory of water and carbon dioxide reservoirs on Mars are important clues for understanding the geological, climatic and potentially exobiological evolution of the planet. From the early mapping observation of the permanent ice caps on the martian poles, the northern cap was believed to be mainly composed of water ice, whereas the southern cap was thought to be constituted of carbon dioxide ice. However, recent missions (NASA missions Mars Global Surveyor and Odyssey) have revealed surface structures, altimetry profiles, underlying buried hydrogen, and temperatures of the south polar regions that are thermodynamically consistent with a mixture of surface water ice and carbon dioxide. Here we present the first direct identification and mapping of both carbon dioxide and water ice in the martian high southern latitudes, at a resolution of 2 km, during the local summer, when the extent of the polar ice is at its minimum. We observe that this south polar cap contains perennial water ice in extended areas: as a small admixture to carbon dioxide in the bright regions; associated with dust, without carbon dioxide, at the edges of this bright cap; and, unexpectedly, in large areas tens of kilometres away from the bright cap.     

Thermal history of Mars inferred from orbital geochemistry of volcanic provinces

Reconstruction of the geological history of Mars has been the focus of considerable attention over the past four decades, with important discoveries being made about variations in surface conditions. However, despite a significant increase in the amount of data related to the morphology, mineralogy and chemistry of the martian surface, there is no clear global picture of how magmatism has evolved over time and how these changes relate to the internal workings and thermal evolution of the planet. Here we present geochemical data derived from the Gamma Ray Spectrometer on board NASA's Mars Odyssey spacecraft, focusing on twelve major volcanic provinces of variable age. Our analysis reveals clear trends in composition that are found to be consistent with varying degrees of melting of the martian mantle. There is evidence for thickening of the lithosphere (17-25?km?Gyr(-1)) associated with a decrease in mantle potential temperature over time (30-40?K?Gyr(-1)). Our inferred thermal history of Mars, unlike that of the Earth, is consistent with simple models of mantle convection.     

特征不同的两种扇三角洲相识别与对比

根据构造背景、海平面升降变化、沉积特征等的研究,在琼东南盆地渐新统崖城组中识别出特征明显不同的两种海洋扇三角洲相。靠山型扇三角洲相紧邻高地物源区,发育于盆缘断层下降盘坡度较陡的斜坡区,沉积物往往很粗,分选较差,粒度概率曲线多呈弧形或一段式斜线形,常见重力流成因的递变层理和块状层理,表明沉积水动力以重力流作用为主,兼有牵引流作用。靠扇型扇三角洲相以紧邻陆上冲积扇为特征,通常发育于盆缘断层下降盘坡度相对平缓的斜坡区,沉积物一般较粗,分选较好,粒度概率曲线以两段式和多段式为主,常见牵引流成因的各种交错层理、平行层理和砂纹层理,表明沉积水动力以牵引流作用为主,兼有沉积物重力流作用。靠扇型扇三角洲相砂体的储集性能优于靠山型扇三角洲。盆地边缘斜坡较陡和海平面较高,有利于靠山型扇三角洲相的发育;当盆地边缘斜坡较平缓和海平面相对较低时,则有利于靠扇型扇三角洲相的发育。随盆缘斜坡坡度和海平面升降变化,这两种扇三角洲相可以互相演替。     

Heterogeneous chemistry in the atmosphere of Mars

Hydrogen radicals are produced in the martian atmosphere by the photolysis of water vapour and subsequently initiate catalytic cycles that recycle carbon dioxide from its photolysis product carbon monoxide. These processes provide a qualitative explanation for the stability of the atmosphere of Mars, which contains 95 per cent carbon dioxide. Balancing carbon dioxide production and loss based on our current understanding of the gas-phase chemistry in the martian atmosphere has, however, proven to be difficult. Interactions between gaseous chemical species and ice cloud particles have been shown to be key factors in the loss of polar ozone observed in the Earth's stratosphere, and may significantly perturb the chemistry of the Earth's upper troposphere. Water-ice clouds are also commonly observed in the atmosphere of Mars and it has been suggested previously that heterogeneous chemistry could have an important impact on the composition of the martian atmosphere. Here we use a state-of-the-art general circulation model together with new observations of the martian ozone layer to show that model simulations that include chemical reactions occurring on ice clouds lead to much improved quantitative agreement with observed martian ozone levels in comparison with model simulations based on gas-phase chemistry alone. Ozone is readily destroyed by hydrogen radicals and is therefore a sensitive tracer of the chemistry that regulates the atmosphere of Mars. Our results suggest that heterogeneous chemistry on ice clouds plays an important role in controlling the stability and composition of the martian atmosphere.     

祁连山东段冲积扇的发育时代及其成因

第四纪期间祁连山东段山麓地带广泛发育了多级冲积扇,它们是研究区域构造抬升与气候变化最为直接的载体.本文主要通过ESR,IRSL以及14C等绝对测年手段对该区冲积扇的形成年代进行研究,结果表明祁连山东段北麓最高级冲积扇形成于0.85 MaBP,而毛毛山南麓的最高级冲积扇形成于0.43 MaBP.随后各地又相继发育了0.25,0.16,0.06,0.01 MaBP等多级冲洪积台地.根据主要冲积扇的形成年代及其与区域构造气候事件的对比,认为它们是构造运动与气候变化共同作用的产物.     

Global warming and climate forcing by recent albedo changes on Mars

For hundreds of years, scientists have tracked the changing appearance of Mars, first by hand drawings and later by photographs. Because of this historical record, many classical albedo patterns have long been known to shift in appearance over time. Decadal variations of the martian surface albedo are generally attributed to removal and deposition of small amounts of relatively bright dust on the surface. Large swaths of the surface (up to 56 million km2) have been observed to darken or brighten by 10 per cent or more. It is unknown, however, how these albedo changes affect wind circulation, dust transport and the feedback between these processes and the martian climate. Here we present predictions from a Mars general circulation model, indicating that the observed interannual albedo alterations strongly influence the martian environment. Results indicate enhanced wind stress in recently darkened areas and decreased wind stress in brightened areas, producing a positive feedback system in which the albedo changes strengthen the winds that generate the changes. The simulations also predict a net annual global warming of surface air temperatures by approximately 0.65 K, enhancing dust lifting by increasing the likelihood of dust devil generation. The increase in global dust lifting by both wind stress and dust devils may affect the mechanisms that trigger large dust storm initiation, a poorly understood phenomenon, unique to Mars. In addition, predicted increases in summertime air temperatures at high southern latitudes would contribute to the rapid and steady scarp retreat that has been observed in the south polar residual ice for the past four Mars years. Our results suggest that documented albedo changes affect recent climate change and large-scale weather patterns on Mars, and thus albedo variations are a necessary component of future atmospheric and climate studies.     

玛18井区三叠系百口泉组沉积相精细研究及有利储层预测

玛18井区三叠系百口泉组发育一套近源粗粒碎屑沉积,目前关于该区的沉积相类型仍存在争议,生产矛盾突出。通过岩心观察,结合扫描电镜、岩石薄片、录井、测井及试油等资料对艾湖油田三叠系百口泉组(T1b)沉积相进行研究。研究表明,百口泉组(T1b)发育一套扇三角洲沉积,而非冲积扇沉积,也并非只发育扇三角洲水下沉积部分,可识别出扇三角洲平原、扇三角洲前缘、前三角洲3个亚相以及泥石流、扇面河道等9个微相。其中,牵引流成因的扇面河道和水下分流河道微相含油性较好,为有利储层;而泥石流、碎屑流等重力流成因的储层,含油性较差。本次研究将为该区后续的评价、开发提供新的思路和方法,也为邻区甚至国内其他扇三角洲发育区的油气勘探开发提供借鉴。     

High-resolution subsurface water-ice distributions on Mars

Theoretical models indicate that water ice is stable in the shallow subsurface (depths of <1-2 m) of Mars at high latitudes. These models have been mainly supported by the observed presence of large concentrations of hydrogen detected by the Gamma Ray Spectrometer suite of instruments on the Mars Odyssey spacecraft. The models and measurements are consistent with a water-ice table that steadily increases in depth with decreasing latitude. More detailed modelling has predicted that the depth at which water ice is stable can be highly variable, owing to local surface heterogeneities such as rocks and slopes, and the thermal inertia of the ground cover. Measurements have, however, been limited to the footprint (several hundred kilometres) of the Gamma Ray Spectrometer suite, preventing the observations from documenting more detailed water-ice distributions. Here I show that by observing the seasonal temperature response of the martian surface with the Thermal Emission Imaging System on the Mars Odyssey spacecraft, it is possible to observe such heterogeneities at subkilometre scale. These observations show significant regional and local water-ice depth variability, and, in some cases, support distributions in the subsurface predicted by atmospheric exchange and vapour diffusion models. The presence of water ice where it follows the depth of stability under current climatic conditions implies an active martian water cycle that responds to orbit-driven climate cycles. Several regions also have apparent deviations from the theoretical stability level, indicating that additional factors influence the ice-table depth. The high-resolution measurements show that the depth to the water-ice table is highly variable within the potential Phoenix spacecraft landing ellipses, and is likely to be variable at scales that may be sampled by the spacecraft.     

塔北地区侏罗系沉积相特征

 通过对塔北地区120口井的录井资料、测井资料和部分岩心资料进行综合分析,对近2.5万km的二维地震剖面进行地震相分析,认为塔北地区侏罗系主要发育冲积扇、辫状河、辫状河三角洲、扇三角洲、滨浅湖和半深湖6种沉积相,以辫状河三角洲和扇三角洲最为发育。辫状河三角洲主要在英买力、东河塘、跃南、轮古西、哈得逊、草南和觉马1井南地区发育,扇三角洲主要在轮南和草湖地区发育,辫状河主要在马纳1井—马纳3井—英买3井—跃南1井—哈得5井区、英买6井区和塔北地区东南部发育,滨浅湖和半深湖主要在群克尔地区发育。三角洲分流河道砂体、扇三角洲平原水上分流河道砂体、辫状河道砂体和塔北地区东部发育的浊积砂体是寻找岩性圈闭的有利勘探目标。     

川西前陆盆地须家河组沉积相及岩相古地理演化

川西前陆盆地上三叠统须家河组是油气勘探的重点层位.依据新的地层划分方案、大量钻井、露头及岩芯资料,结合区域地质特征,详细研究了须家河组沉积相、岩相古地理特征及其演化.结果表明:研究区内主要发育了冲积扇、湖相三角洲、湖泊、海相三角洲、滨岸和海湾六种主要的沉积相类型;古地理演化经历了由海相环境-海陆过渡相环境-陆相环境的转变;在须四早期,受安县运动的影响,龙门山褶皱成山,使研究区与阿坝海域完全隔绝,整个四川盆地真正进入了陆相沉积环境.     

CO2 jets formed by sublimation beneath translucent slab ice in Mars' seasonal south polar ice cap

The martian polar caps are among the most dynamic regions on Mars, growing substantially in winter as a significant fraction of the atmosphere freezes out in the form of CO2 ice. Unusual dark spots, fans and blotches form as the south-polar seasonal CO2 ice cap retreats during spring and summer. Small radial channel networks are often associated with the location of spots once the ice disappears. The spots have been proposed to be simply bare, defrosted ground; the formation of the channels has remained uncertain. Here we report infrared and visible observations that show that the spots and fans remain at CO2 ice temperatures well into summer, and must be granular materials that have been brought up to the surface of the ice, requiring a complex suite of processes to get them there. We propose that the seasonal ice cap forms an impermeable, translucent slab of CO2 ice that sublimates from the base, building up high-pressure gas beneath the slab. This gas levitates the ice, which eventually ruptures, producing high-velocity CO2 vents that erupt sand-sized grains in jets to form the spots and erode the channels. These processes are unlike any observed on Earth.     

贺兰山东麓冲积扇发育特征

贺兰山东麓是我国冲积扇发育比较典型的地区之一,受独特的气候和山地特征以及黄河冲积平原的影响,该地区冲积扇发育有着不同于其他地区的特点：扇体主要以砂砾石物质为主形成,砾石滩地与前缘坡地呈突然转折,前缘形成咸水湖沼和沙地,扇体坡度较大,扇体前缘基本沿直线分布等。而且本地区冲积扇在发育上也存在着较大的差异：北段的大武口冲积扇物质组成较细,坡度较平缓,面积较大。中段的大水沟等四个扇体组成物质较粗,坡度较大,而面积较小。南段的贺兰口等4个扇体则物质粗,坡度大,面积中等。本文介绍了贺兰山东麓冲积扇的形态、规模、地貌、物质、沉积结构构造等。并对流域特征与扇体特征的关系以及其他影响冲积扇的发育特征的因素进行了探讨,发现扇体面积与流域面积、地势起伏度有以下关系：A_f=6.245A_d^1.09h^1.33。扇体坡度与流域面积和地势起伏度的关系式为：r=10.67A_d^-0.27h^0.39。可见山地地势起伏对贺兰山东麓冲积扇的影响相对较大。同时,气候、构造和黄河冲积平原也影响着扇体发育。     

塔南凹陷下白垩统铜钵庙组-大磨拐河组沉积相研究

塔南凹陷下白垩统砂体沉积厚度大,分布广泛,是含油气的重要储层。根据测井、岩心观察和3D地震资料分析,认为塔南凹陷下白垩统发育扇三角洲、近岸水下扇和三角洲沉积相。其中,铜钵庙组主要发育扇三角洲沉积,根据扇三角洲的岩性、沉积层序和形态进一步划分为扇三角洲平原、扇三角洲前缘和前扇三角洲3个亚相带。南屯组发育近岸水下扇沉积,可细分为内扇、中扇和外扇三个亚相。大磨拐河组发育三角洲沉积,本区缺失三角洲平原相,只见三角洲前缘和前三角洲亚相。     

Timescales of shock processes in chondritic and martian meteorites

The accretion of the terrestrial planets from asteroid collisions and the delivery to the Earth of martian and lunar meteorites has been modelled extensively. Meteorites that have experienced shock waves from such collisions can potentially be used to reveal the accretion process at different stages of evolution within the Solar System. Here we have determined the peak pressure experienced and the duration of impact in a chondrite and a martian meteorite, and have combined the data with impact scaling laws to infer the sizes of the impactors and the associated craters on the meteorite parent bodies. The duration of shock events is inferred from trace element distributions between coexisting high-pressure minerals in the shear melt veins of the meteorites. The shock duration and the associated sizes of the impactor are found to be much greater in the chondrite (approximately 1 s and 5 km, respectively) than in the martian meteorite (approximately 10 ms and 100 m). The latter result compares well with numerical modelling studies of cratering on Mars, and we suggest that martian meteorites with similar, recent ejection ages (10(5) to 10(7) years ago) may have originated from the same few square kilometres on Mars.     

鄂尔多斯盆地上三叠统延长组沉积体系特征及演化

在野外剖面观察、岩心描述及测井、测试资料分析的基础上,综合前人研究成果,对鄂尔多斯盆地上三叠统延长组沉积体系的类型、特征进行了详细分析,并深入讨论了鄂尔多斯盆地延长组沉积体系垂向上的演化规律.结果表明: 鄂尔多斯盆地延长组主要发育冲积扇、扇三角洲、河流、河流三角洲、湖泊和湖泊浊积扇六大类沉积体系.长8期湖盆开始形成,主要发育神木-乌审旗、安塞和正宁-合水等三角洲沉积体系;长7期湖盆进一步扩展,三角洲规模萎缩;长6期湖水大面积退缩,三角洲前缘连片,面积最大,东北三角洲前缘已推进至吴旗-甘泉一线,西南缘推进至华池-庆阳一带;长4 5期以浅湖亚相为主;长3、长2期以三角洲平原沉积为主;长1期湖盆继续萎缩至消亡,局部出现沼泽环境.盆地沉积体系的演化,在纵向上构成了五套储盖组合.