Orisin and future distribution of the new A （H 1N1 ） influenza virus emerging in North America in 2009

The origin of the new A （H1N1） influenza virus recently emerging in North America is a hot controversial topic of significance in disease control and risk assessment. Some experts claimed that it was an unusually mongrelized mix of human, avian and swine influenza viruses, while some others concluded that it was totally a simple re-assortment hybrid of two lineages of swine influenza viruses. Here the phylogenetic diversity of the viral PB1, PA and PB2 gene sequences using online web servers, and the results suggest that all the 8 genetic segments of the new virus were possibly from two lineages of swine influenza viruses, and one of the lineage was a mongrelized mix of human, avian and swine influenza viruses emerging in the world approximately 10 years ago. Considering the recent epidemiological trends of the new virus, we believe it will spread more widely in the world and persist long in human populations. It also could spread among swine populations. The future wide spreading of the new virus may coincide the disappearance of a subtype of previous human influenza A virus.     

Correlation between echolocation calls and morphological features among three kinds of bats

The correlation between echolocation sound and morphological features of 18 species of bats, which are subordinated to 3 families including rhinolophidae, hipposideridae and vespertilionidae is studied. Pearson's correlation and regression analysis are adopted to analyze the correlations between noseleaf width (NW) and forearm length (FAL), NW and dominant frequency (DF), FAL and DF. The results show a positive correlation between NW and FAL and a negative correlation between NW and DF in Rhinolophidae. In each family, there is a negative correlation between FAL and DF. Some species have a higher or lower frequency than predicted one according to their body size. There are significant differences of the regression equation of FAL and DF among the three families. For the bats with the same body size, the order in frequency is: hipposiderid bats＞ rhinolophid bats＞ vespertilionid bats. The mechanism of interrelationship between FAL and DF of bats, the reason why these deviations occur in correlativity of the three families and the mechanism of the interaction between morphological, physiological and ecological characteristics are discussed.     

Primitive Early Eocene bat from Wyoming and the evolution of flight and echolocation

Bats (Chiroptera) represent one of the largest and most diverse radiations of mammals, accounting for one-fifth of extant species. Although recent studies unambiguously support bat monophyly and consensus is rapidly emerging about evolutionary relationships among extant lineages, the fossil record of bats extends over 50 million years, and early evolution of the group remains poorly understood. Here we describe a new bat from the Early Eocene Green River Formation of Wyoming, USA, with features that are more primitive than seen in any previously known bat. The evolutionary pathways that led to flapping flight and echolocation in bats have been in dispute, and until now fossils have been of limited use in documenting transitions involved in this marked change in lifestyle. Phylogenetically informed comparisons of the new taxon with other bats and non-flying mammals reveal that critical morphological and functional changes evolved incrementally. Forelimb anatomy indicates that the new bat was capable of powered flight like other Eocene bats, but ear morphology suggests that it lacked their echolocation abilities, supporting a 'flight first' hypothesis for chiropteran evolution. The shape of the wings suggests that an undulating gliding-fluttering flight style may be primitive for bats, and the presence of a long calcar indicates that a broad tail membrane evolved early in Chiroptera, probably functioning as an additional airfoil rather than as a prey-capture device. Limb proportions and retention of claws on all digits indicate that the new bat may have been an agile climber that employed quadrupedal locomotion and under-branch hanging behaviour.     

The phylogenetic history of immunodeficiency viruses

Knowledge of the phylogenetic history of the human immunodeficiency viruses (HIV-1 and HIV-2) is important for our understanding of the epidemiology of AIDS, the disease caused by these viruses. Reconstruction of the evolutionary tree is hampered, however, by two problems. One is the high variation in nucleotide sequence between the known HIV isolates which can create formidable difficulties in identifying homologous genomic sites that may be used in a molecular phylogenetic reconstruction. Another impediment has been the lack of unequivocal time calibration points: there is only a sparse 'fossil record' for HIV and limited historical epidemiological data. We have largely overcome these difficulties by: (1) a thorough optimal-sequence alignment analysis; (2) the inclusion of sequences of an early (1976) HIV-1 isolate, a recent (1986) HIV-2 isolate and two simian immunodeficiency viruses (SIV) along with five other HIV-1 isolates; and (3) the reconstruction of a minimum-length evolutionary tree based on the envelope-gene variable positions. We conclude that HIV-1 may have evolved from its common ancestor with HIV-2 as recently as 40 years ago.     

High diversity of unknown picorna-like viruses in the sea

Picorna-like viruses are a loosely defined group of positive-sense single-stranded RNA viruses that are major pathogens of animals, plants and insects. They include viruses that are of enormous economic and public-health concern and are responsible for animal diseases (such as poliomyelitis), plant diseases (such as sharka) and insect diseases (such as sacbrood). Viruses from the six divergent families (the Picornaviridae, Caliciviridae, Comoviridae, Sequiviridae, Dicistroviridae and Potyviridae) that comprise the picorna-like virus superfamily have the following features in common: a genome with a protein attached to the 5' end and no overlapping open reading frames, all the RNAs are translated into a polyprotein before processing, and a conserved RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) protein. Analyses of RdRp sequences from these viruses produce phylogenies that are congruent with established picorna-like virus family assignments; hence, this gene is an excellent molecular marker for examining the diversity of picorna-like viruses in nature. Here we report, on the basis of analysis of RdRp sequences amplified from marine virus communities, that a diverse array of picorna-like viruses exists in the ocean. All of the sequences amplified were divergent from known picorna-like viruses, and fell within four monophyletic groups that probably belong to at least two new families. Moreover, we show that an isolate belonging to one of these groups is a lytic pathogen of Heterosigma akashiwo, a toxic-bloom-forming alga responsible for severe economic losses to the finfish aquaculture industry, suggesting that picorna-like viruses are important pathogens of marine phytoplankton.     

Viruses in the sea

Viruses exist wherever life is found. They are a major cause of mortality, a driver of global geochemical cycles and a reservoir of the greatest genetic diversity on Earth. In the oceans, viruses probably infect all living things, from bacteria to whales. They affect the form of available nutrients and the termination of algal blooms. Viruses can move between marine and terrestrial reservoirs, raising the spectre of emerging pathogens. Our understanding of the effect of viruses on global systems and processes continues to unfold, overthrowing the idea that viruses and virus-mediated processes are sidebars to global processes.     

蒙古族心血管疾病及其危险因素研究进展

大量流行病学和遗传学研究证实,冠心病、脑卒中等心脑血管疾病是由遗传因素与环境因素共同作用所致的复杂疾病。心血管疾病的重要危险因素有高血压、高血脂、高血糖、肥胖、吸烟等。这些危险因素对预测心血管疾病的发病有重要的意义。现通过查阅文献,对蒙古族心血管疾病及其危险因素研究现状进行综述,为今后进一步进行蒙古族人群心血管疾病研究提供理论依据。     

李斯特氏菌的各种分型方法在其流行病学调查中的应用

李斯特氏菌是一种重要的人畜共患的食源性病原菌，选择适宜的方法对其进行分型研究，更有利于合理准确诠释李斯特氏菌病的流行病学。本文就李斯特氏菌的各种分型方法在其流行病学调查中的应用及其实用性进行了综述。     

The challenge of emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases

Infectious diseases have for centuries ranked with wars and famine as major challenges to human progress and survival. They remain among the leading causes of death and disability worldwide. Against a constant background of established infections, epidemics of new and old infectious diseases periodically emerge, greatly magnifying the global burden of infections. Studies of these emerging infections reveal the evolutionary properties of pathogenic microorganisms and the dynamic relationships between microorganisms, their hosts and the environment.     

人造甜味剂与人体健康风险

人造甜味剂由于其甜价比高、热量低而备受食品制造行业及消费者青睐。目前我国允许使用的人造甜味剂共9种,可应用至十几大类食品和饮料中。然而已有动物实验及流行病学数据显示,人造甜味剂的长期大量摄入可能会导致高血糖、葡萄糖耐受不良、肥胖等代谢系统性疾病,易怒、抑郁、记忆衰退、阿尔兹海默症等神经系统异常。人造甜味剂甚至被报道具有遗传毒性和致癌性。考虑到人造甜味剂可能对人体造成的健康风险,需对其摄入量进行控制,或有倾向性地选择新型人造甜味剂,同时还需要加强对新型人造甜味剂的安全性深入研究。     

翼手目6种蝙蝠毛发显微结构研究

对翼手目大蹄蝠、中蹄蝠、中菊头蝠、普氏蹄蝠、普通伏翼和皱唇犬吻蝠腹部毛发进行显微结构观察与分析.结果表明:(1)6种蝙蝠腹部毛发的长度和宽度有不同,大蹄蝠和普通伏翼存在显著性差异;(2)6种蝙蝠腹部毛发鳞片形态和分布存在显著性差异,而且其鳞片大小也有显著差异.这些差异有利于分辨和识别该6种蝙蝠.     

Progress and prospects of studies on Polymyxa graminis and its transmitted cereal viruses in China

Asearlyasinthe1920s,amosaicorrosettediseasewasfirstreportedonwinterwheatinAmerica,andthenitwasfoundthatthepathogenwastransmittedviasoil. In1925,Mckinneysuccessfullytransmittedthepathogenfromtheinfectedplantstohealthyplantsbymechanical inoculationandprovedthatthepathogenwasavirus,namedsoil bornewheatmosaicvirus(SBWMV).In1969,RaoandBrakkefoundthatSBWMVwas transmittedbyPolymyxagraminisinsoil[1].Inlateryears,similardiseaseswerealsoreportedinJapan,I taly,France,Germany,BrazilandArgentina,w…     

三种蝙蝠线粒体解偶联蛋白2（UCP2）基因的克隆和进化分析

根据几种哺乳动物UCP2基因的保守区设计一对简并引物,扩增马铁菊头蝠（Rhinolophus ferrumequinum）、长翼蝠（Miniopterus fuliginosus）和犬蝠（Cynopterus sphinx）的UCP2基因的全部编码区序列.测序结果表明,三种蝙蝠UCP2编码区全长930 bp,编码309个氨基酸,推测的氨基酸序列包含线粒体内膜载体蛋白的3个特征结构及解偶联蛋白（UCPs）的特征序列.序列分析表明,蝙蝠与其它哺乳动物UCP2的氨基酸推导序列有很高的同源性,为90.6%~97.0%.进化分析表明,UCP2基因在哺乳动物中进化过程中非常保守,受到强烈的纯化选择压力作用（ω=0.063）.Branch-specific 模型分析表明,UCP2基因在蝙蝠支系与其它不能飞行的哺乳动物、冬眠蝙蝠与非冬眠蝙蝠的进化过程所受到的选择压力无明显差异（P>0.05）.这说明在整个哺乳动物进化过程中UCP2对其能量代谢的调控均起到了重要作用.然而,UCP2如何参与哺乳动物能量调控仍有待于进一步研究.     

Discoveries and functions of virus-encoded MicroRNAs

Virus-encoded microRNAs （miRNAs） are a new kind of miRNAs that regulate the expression of target gene in host cells or viruses through inducing cleavage of mRNA, repressing translation, etc., and change the processes of host cells or replicate viruses to escape or resist immune surveillance of host and protect viruses themselves. It has become a hot topic to discover viral genes encoding miRNAs and their target genes, and to identify their functions. This review provides background information on the history of virally encoded miRNAs including their genomic distribution, functions and mechanisms. In addition, we discuss the similarities and differences between virus- and host-encoded miRNAs, the future directions of researches in viral miRNAs and their applications in diseases control and therapy.     

Seasonal dynamics of recurrent epidemics

Seasonality is a driving force that has a major effect on the spatio-temporal dynamics of natural systems and their populations. This is especially true for the transmission of common infectious diseases (such as influenza, measles, chickenpox and pertussis), and is of great relevance for host-parasite relationships in general. Here we gain further insights into the nonlinear dynamics of recurrent diseases through the analysis of the classical seasonally forced SIR (susceptible, infectious or recovered) epidemic model. Our analysis differs from other modelling studies in that the focus is more on post-epidemic dynamics than the outbreak itself. Despite the mathematical intractability of the forced SIR model, we identify a new threshold effect and give clear analytical conditions for predicting the occurrence of either a future epidemic outbreak, or a 'skip'-a year in which an epidemic fails to initiate. The threshold is determined by the population's susceptibility measured after the last outbreak and the rate at which new susceptible individuals are recruited into the population. Moreover, the time of occurrence (that is, the phase) of an outbreak proves to be a useful parameter that carries important epidemiological information. In forced systems, seasonal changes can prevent late-peaking diseases (that is, those having high phase) from spreading widely, thereby increasing population susceptibility, and controlling the triggering and intensity of future epidemics. These principles yield forecasting tools that should have relevance for the study of newly emerging and re-emerging diseases controlled by seasonal vectors.     

黔中地区岩溶洞穴翼手类的初步调查及部分生态观察

从 1995年 5月至 1999年 12月间对黔中地区的龙天洞、唐官大坡洞、和尚洞和大洞口等 2 1个洞穴的翼手类进行了初步调查 ,共捕获标本 2 0 0余号 ,经鉴定计 16种 ,隶属 3科 7属。此外 ,还对翼手类的部分生态进行了观察 ,共观察多种翼手类 10 0 0余只。分析了光和温度对翼手类活动的影响及湿度对翼手类分布的影响 ,翼手类的水平和空间分布、昼夜活动及在洞穴生态系统中的作用。还对翼手类的保护进行了探讨     

中国蝙蝠核型研究的现状

对中国蝙蝠核型研究的现状进行了分析和研究,在已发表的22篇研究论文中,报道了39种蝙蝠的核型,中国尚有约60％以上的蝙蝠种类未进行核型分析．针对已发表研究论文中存在部分种类鉴定有误、图表欠准确合理和研究方法待改进等问题,提出了改进研究方法等建议,对提高我国蝙蝠研究水平和核型研究论文的质量有较重要的意义。     

No cost of echolocation for bats in flight

Echolocation has evolved in relatively few animal species. One constraint may be the high cost of producing pulses, the echoes of which can be detected over useful distances. The energy cost of echolocation in a small (6 g) insectivorous bat, when hanging at rest, was recently measured at 0.067 Joules per pulse, implying a mean cost for echolocation in flight of 9.5 x basal metabolic rate (range 7 to 12x). Because flight is very costly, whether the costs of echolocation and flying are additive is an important question. We measured the energy costs of flight in two species of small echolocating Microchiroptera using a novel combination of respirometry and doubly-labelled water. Flight energy expenditure (adjusted for body mass) was not significantly different between echolocating bats and non-echolocating bats and birds. The low cost of echolocation for flying vertebrates may have been a significant factor favouring its evolution in these groups.     

Vocalization during copulation behavior in greater horseshoe bats, Rhinolophus ferrumequinum

Vocal communication plays an important role for individual recognition and male-female interaction during mating in greater horseshoe bats,especially in respect to mate fidelity,which ensures that the bats can maintain a stable social organization.Few studies,however,have addressed the calling behavior during copulating in bats.Here,we initially report the copulation vocalizations and behaviors of both male and female greater horseshoe bats.During copulation,the male assumed a dorsal position and arched his back,arming around the female using his feet and thumbs.The male repeatedly produced very short constant frequency(SCF) syllables with high intensity and repetition rate(male 1:16.48±4.8 ms,male 2:17.79±4.03 ms) when he tried to insert the penis into the female,and then long syllables(male 1:42.08±12.67 ms,male 2:43.02±11.44 ms) after penile insertion.The female bats sometime refused the male bats in the early phase of copulations as emitting noise bursts and broad-band vocalizations,but kept silence during actual copulation.We also found that the SCF copulation calls of one male remained stable peak frequencies on different copulation days although its echolocation call frequency varied each day.Moreover,different male individuals maintained their own "private frequency" in the SCF copulation calls.Therefore,we predicted that the SCF copulation calls may serve as an indicator for female greater horseshoe bats to recognize the mating males in order to maintain mate fidelity because horseshoe bats exhibit sexual segregation before mating.Our results stipulate further studies on mating system and copulation strategies in polygynous bats.Such work may also aid in promoting the preservation of greater horseshoe bats.