Evidence from three-dimensional seismic reflectivity images for enhanced melt supply beneath mid-ocean-ridge discontinuities

Quantifying the melt distribution and crustal structure across ridge-axis discontinuities is essential for understanding the relationship between magmatic, tectonic and petrologic segmentation of mid-ocean-ridge spreading centres. The geometry and continuity of magma bodies beneath features such as overlapping spreading centres can strongly influence the composition of erupted lavas and may give insight into the underlying pattern of mantle flow. Here we present three-dimensional images of seismic reflectivity beneath a mid-ocean ridge to investigate the nature of melt distribution across a ridge-axis discontinuity. Reflectivity slices through the 9 degrees 03' N overlapping spreading centre on East Pacific Rise suggest that it has a robust magma supply, with melt bodies underlying both limbs and ponding of melt beneath large areas of the overlap basin. The geometry of melt distribution beneath this offset is inconsistent with large-scale, crustal redistribution of melt away from centres of upwelling. The complex distribution of melt seems instead to be caused by a combination of vertical melt transport from the underlying mantle and subsequent focusing of melt beneath a magma freezing boundary in the mid-crust.     

The influence of ridge migration on the magmatic segmentation of mid-ocean ridges

The Earth's mid-ocean ridges display systematic changes in depth and shape, which subdivide the ridges into discrete spreading segments bounded by transform faults and smaller non-transform offsets of the axis. These morphological changes have been attributed to spatial variations in the supply of magma from the mantle, although the origin of the variations is poorly understood. Here we show that magmatic segmentation of ridges with fast and intermediate spreading rates is directly related to the migration velocity of the spreading axis over the mantle. For over 9,500 km of mid-ocean ridge examined, leading ridge segments in the 'hotspot' reference frame coincide with the shallow magmatically robust segments across 86 per cent of all transform faults and 73 per cent of all second-order discontinuities. We attribute this relationship to asymmetric mantle upwelling and melt production due to ridge migration, with focusing of melt towards ridge segments across discontinuities. The model is consistent with variations in crustal structure across discontinuities of the East Pacific Rise, and may explain variations in depth of melting and the distribution of enriched lavas.     

Seismic reflection images of the Moho underlying melt sills at the East Pacific Rise

The determination of melt distribution in the crust and the nature of the crust-mantle boundary (the 'Moho') is fundamental to the understanding of crustal accretion processes at oceanic spreading centres. Upper-crustal magma chambers have been imaged beneath fast- and intermediate-spreading centres but it has been difficult to image structures beneath these magma sills. Using three-dimensional seismic reflection images, here we report the presence of Moho reflections beneath a crustal magma chamber at the 9 degrees 03' N overlapping spreading centre, East Pacific Rise. Our observations highlight the formation of the Moho at zero-aged crust. Over a distance of less than 7 km along the ridge crest, a rapid increase in two-way travel time of seismic waves between the magma chamber and Moho reflections is observed, which we suggest is due to a melt anomaly in the lower crust. The amplitude versus offset variation of reflections from the magma chamber shows a coincident region of higher melt fraction overlying this anomalous region, supporting the conclusion of additional melt at depth.     

Geophysical evidence from the MELT area for compositional controls on oceanic plates

Magnetotelluric and seismic data, collected during the MELT experiment at the southern East Pacific Rise, constrain the distribution of melt beneath this mid-ocean-ridge spreading centre and also the evolution of the oceanic lithosphere during its early cooling history. Here we focus on structures imaged at distances approximately 100 to 350 km east of the ridge crest, corresponding to seafloor ages of approximately 1.3 to 4.5 million years (Myr), where the seismic and electrical conductivity structure is nearly constant and independent of age. Beginning at a depth of about 60 km, we image a large increase in electrical conductivity and a change from isotropic to transversely anisotropic electrical structure, with higher conductivity in the direction of fast propagation for seismic waves. Conductive cooling models predict structure that increases in depth with age, extending to about 30 km at 4.5 Myr ago. We infer, however, that the structure of young oceanic plates is instead controlled by a decrease in water content above a depth of 60 km induced by the melting process beneath the spreading centre.     

Melt retention and segregation beneath mid-ocean ridges

Geochemical models of melting at mid-ocean ridges-particularly those based on trace elements and uranium-decay-series isotopes-predict that melt segregates from the matrix at very low porosities, of order 0.1%. Some of these models also require that the melt ascends rapidly. But these predictions appear to conflict with seismic data obtained by the mantle electromagnetic and tomography (MELT) experiment. These data reveal, beneath the East Pacific Rise (at 17 degrees S), a region of low velocities several hundred kilometres wide, which is best explained by the presence of 1-2% melt, distributed on a grain scale in disk-shaped geometries. Here I show that these apparently contradictory constraints can be reconciled by taking into account the geometry and resulting permeability of the intergranular network of melt, together with the changing character of the melt as it ascends. A deep, volatile-rich melt with low viscosity and density is mobile at 0.1% porosity, but basaltic melt only becomes mobile at a porosity above 1%. While the volumetric contribution of the volatile-rich melt to the erupted basalts is small, the isotopic disequilibria (except for radium) generated by porous flow of this melt are preserved if melt transport is rapid at the onset of high-productivity melting. Also, because of incomplete extraction, some melt is retained in a broad zone, consistent with the MELT observations.     

Ancient, highly heterogeneous mantle beneath Gakkel ridge, Arctic Ocean

The Earth's mantle beneath ocean ridges is widely thought to be depleted by previous melt extraction, but well homogenized by convective stirring. This inference of homogeneity has been complicated by the occurrence of portions enriched in incompatible elements. Here we show that some refractory abyssal peridotites from the ultraslow-spreading Gakkel ridge (Arctic Ocean) have very depleted 187Os/188Os ratios with model ages up to 2 billion years, implying the long-term preservation of refractory domains in the asthenospheric mantle rather than their erasure by mantle convection. The refractory domains would not be sampled by mid-ocean-ridge basalts because they contribute little to the genesis of magmas. We thus suggest that the upwelling mantle beneath mid-ocean ridges is highly heterogeneous, which makes it difficult to constrain its composition by mid-ocean-ridge basalts alone. Furthermore, the existence of ancient domains in oceanic mantle suggests that using osmium model ages to constrain the evolution of continental lithosphere should be approached with caution.     

Contrasting crustal production and rapid mantle transitions beneath back-arc ridges

The opening of back-arc basins behind subduction zones progresses from initial rifting near the volcanic arc to seafloor spreading. During this process, the spreading ridge and the volcanic arc separate and lavas erupted at the ridge are predicted to evolve away from being heavily subduction influenced (with high volatile contents derived from the subducting plate). Current models predict gradational, rather than abrupt, changes in the crust formed along the ridge as the inferred broad melting region beneath it migrates away from heavily subduction-influenced mantle. In contrast, here we show that across-strike and along-strike changes in crustal properties at the Eastern Lau spreading centre are large and abrupt, implying correspondingly large discontinuities in the nature of the mantle supplying melt to the ridge axes. With incremental separation of the ridge axis from the volcanic front of as little as 5?km, seafloor morphology changes from shallower complex volcanic landforms to deeper flat sea floor dominated by linear abyssal hills, upper crustal seismic velocities abruptly increase by over 20%, and gravity anomalies and isostasy indicate crustal thinning of more than 1.9?km. We infer that the abrupt changes in crustal properties reflect rapid evolution of the mantle entrained by the ridge, such that stable, broad triangular upwelling regions, as inferred for mid-ocean ridges, cannot form near the mantle wedge corner. Instead, the observations imply a dynamic process in which the ridge upwelling zone preferentially captures water-rich low-viscosity mantle when it is near the arc. As the ridge moves away from the arc, a tipping point is reached at which that material is rapidly released from the upwelling zone, resulting in rapid changes in the character of the crust formed at the ridge.     

Uppermost mantle structure of the North China Craton: Constraints from interstation Pn travel time difference tomography

The uppermost mantle is the key area for exchange of heat flux and material convection between the crust and lithospheric mantle. Spatial variations of lithospheric thinning and dynamic processes in the North China Craton could inevitably induce the velocity heterogeneity in the uppermost mantle. In this study, we used Pn arrivals from permanent seismic stations in North China and surrounding regions to construct a tomographic image of the North China Craton. The tomographic method with Pn travel time difference data were used to study the velocity variations in the uppermost mantle. Pn velocities in the uppermost mantle varied significantly in the Eastern, Central and Western blocks of the North China Craton. This suggests that the lithosphere beneath different blocks of the North China Craton have experienced distinct tectonic evolutions and dynamic processes since the Paleozoic. The current uppermost mantle has been imprinted by these tectonic and dynamic processes. Fast Pn velocities are prominent beneath the Bohai Bay Basin in the Eastern Block of the North China Craton, suggesting residuals of the Archean lithospheric mantle. Beneath the Tanlu Fault Zone and Bohai Sea, slow Pn velocities are present in the uppermost mantle, which can be attributed to significant lithospheric thinning and asthenospheric upwelling. The newly formed lithospheric mantle beneath Yanshan Mountain may be the dominant reason for the existence of slow Pn velocities in this region. Conversely, the ancient lower crust and lithospheric mantle already have been delaminated. In the Central Block, significant slow Pn velocities are present in Taihangshan Mountain, which also extends northward to the Yinchuan-Hetao Rift on the northern margin of the Ordos Block and Yinshan Orogen. This characteristic probably is a result of hot asthenospheric upwelling along the active tectonic boundary on the margin of the Western Block. The protracted thermal erosion and underplating of hot asthenospheric upwelling may induce lithospheric thinning and significant slow velocities in the uppermost mantle. Fast velocities beneath the Western Block suggest that the thick, cold and refractory Archean lithospheric keel of craton still is retained without apparent destruction.     

南海玄武岩：扩张洋脊与海山

 南海存在两种火山岩：洋中脊玄武岩（MORB）和洋岛玄武岩（OIB）。国际大洋发现计划（IODP）第349、367、368、368X航次在南海海盆的成功钻取,获得了南海初始扩张（~34 Ma）和停止扩张（~15-16 Ma）前的洋壳样品。南海东部、西南次海盆及北缘洋-陆过渡带代表海盆发展的不同阶段,具有不同的地幔潜能温度、物质组成和洋脊扩张速度,因此产生的洋中脊玄武岩成分差异显著。南海地区在扩张晚期及停止扩张之后存在大规模地幔上涌,与其周缘地区的持续俯冲有关,产出的海山OIB不同于地幔柱活动产生的火山链。南海虽小,但蕴含的信息异常丰富,是窥探地球深部难得的天然窗口。     

利用SS前驱波研究纳斯卡–南美俯冲带周边上地幔间断面起伏及其动力学意义

利用USArray的远震记录资料, 对1万多条地震记录的SS前驱波进行共反射点叠加分析(叠加范围是半径为5°的球冠), 得到纳斯卡板块南部及南美板块西部(120°W—60°W, 30°S—5°N)上地幔间断面的起伏形态。由于数据很好地覆盖了研究区域, 叠加范围更小, 因此比以往的结果具有更高的空间分辨率。在Galapagos, Easter和 San Felix这3个热点下方观测到的间断面起伏形态符合地幔深部存在高温异常的假设。还观测到: 在东太平洋洋隆南段下方, 410 km间断面深度增加; 在俯冲带下方, 410 km和 660 km间断面深度增加。     

Seismological constraints on a possible plume root at the core-mantle boundary

Recent seismological discoveries have indicated that the Earth's core-mantle boundary is far more complex than a simple boundary between the molten outer core and the silicate mantle. Instead, its structural complexities probably rival those of the Earth's crust. Some regions of the lowermost mantle have been observed to have seismic wave speed reductions of at least 10 per cent, which appear not to be global in extent. Here we present robust evidence for an 8.5-km-thick and approximately 50-km-wide pocket of dense, partially molten material at the core-mantle boundary east of Australia. Array analyses of an anomalous precursor to the reflected seismic wave ScP reveal compressional and shear-wave velocity reductions of 8 and 25 per cent, respectively, and a 10 per cent increase in density of the partially molten aggregate. Seismological data are incompatible with a basal layer composed of pure melt, and thus require a mechanism to prevent downward percolation of dense melt within the layer. This may be possible by trapping of melt by cumulus crystal growth following melt drainage from an anomalously hot overlying region of the lowermost mantle. This magmatic evolution and the resulting cumulate structure seem to be associated with overlying thermal instabilities, and thus may mark a root zone of an upwelling plume.     

西太平洋洋底高原内部结构与形成演化

洋底高原是在深海盆地中最显著的大火成岩省,记录着海洋大规模的岩浆活动,对研究地壳结构、板块构造、地幔动力学乃至地球演化历史都具有重要意义。西太平洋是洋底高原分布最密集的区域,是研究洋底高原内部结构与形成演化的最佳场所。选取西太平洋中最具代表性的6座洋底高原——沙茨基海隆、赫斯海隆、麦哲伦海隆、翁通爪哇高原、马尼希基高原以及希古朗基高原,通过对这6座洋底高原地质概况的简要描述,归纳近年来获得的地球物理与地球化学重要观测结果,揭示其内部结构的共性,包括大面积地形隆起、异常厚的地壳、异常负的地幔重力异常以及形成于洋中脊之上或者附近的位置特征;探索了其形成机制,即地幔柱与洋中脊的相互作用可能是洋底高原的主要成因。     

Spreading-rate dependence of melt extraction at mid-ocean ridges from mantle seismic refraction data

A variety of observations indicate that mid-ocean ridges produce less crust at spreading rates below 20 mm yr(-1) (refs 1-3), reflecting changes in fundamental ridge processes with decreasing spreading rate. The nature of these changes, however, remains uncertain, with end-member explanations being decreasing shallow melting or incomplete melt extraction, each due to the influence of a thicker thermal lid. Here we present results of a seismic refraction experiment designed to study mid-ocean ridge processes by imaging residual mantle structure. Our results reveal an abrupt lateral change in bulk mantle seismic properties associated with a change from slow to ultraslow palaeo-spreading rate. Changes in mantle velocity gradient, basement topography and crustal thickness all correlate with this spreading-rate change. These observations can be explained by variations in melt extraction at the ridge, with a gabbroic phase preferentially retained in the mantle at slower spreading rates. The estimated volume of retained melt balances the approximately 1.5-km difference in crustal thickness, suggesting that changes in spreading rate affect melt-extraction processes rather than total melting.     

Lithium isotope evidence for subduction-enriched mantle in the source of mid-ocean-ridge basalts

'Recycled' crustal materials, returned from the Earth's surface to the mantle by subduction, have long been invoked to explain compositional heterogeneity in the upper mantle. Yet increasingly, problems have been noted with this model. The debate can be definitively addressed using stable isotope ratios, which should only significantly vary in primitive, mantle-derived materials as a consequence of recycling. Here we present data showing a notable range in lithium isotope ratios in basalts from the East Pacific Rise, which correlate with traditional indices of mantle heterogeneity (for example, 143Nd/144Nd ratios). Such co-variations of stable and radiogenic isotopes in melts from a normal ridge segment provide critical evidence for the importance of recycled material in generating chemical heterogeneity in the upper mantle. Contrary to many models, however, the elevated lithium isotope ratios of the 'enriched' East Pacific Rise lavas imply that subducted ocean crust is not the agent of enrichment. Instead, we suggest that fluid-modified mantle, which is enriched during residency in a subduction zone, is mixed back into the upper mantle to cause compositional variability.     

Mantle wedge control on back-arc crustal accretion

At mid-ocean ridges, plate separation leads to upward advection and pressure-release partial melting of fertile mantle material; the melt is then extracted to the spreading centre and the residual depleted mantle flows horizontally away. In back-arc basins, the subducting slab is an important control on the pattern of mantle advection and melt extraction, as well as on compositional and fluid gradients. Modelling studies predict significant mantle wedge effects on back-arc spreading processes. Here we show that various spreading centres in the Lau back-arc basin exhibit enhanced, diminished or normal magma supply, which correlates with distance from the arc volcanic front but not with spreading rate. To explain this correlation we propose that depleted upper-mantle material, generated by melt extraction in the mantle wedge, is overturned and re-introduced beneath the back-arc basin by subduction-induced corner flow. The spreading centres experience enhanced melt delivery near the volcanic front, diminished melting within the overturned depleted mantle farther from the corner and normal melting conditions in undepleted mantle farther away. Our model explains fundamental differences in crustal accretion variables between back-arc and mid-ocean settings.     

Spreading rate dependence of gravity anomalies along oceanic transform faults

Mid-ocean ridge morphology and crustal accretion are known to depend on the spreading rate of the ridge. Slow-spreading mid-ocean-ridge segments exhibit significant crustal thinning towards transform and non-transform offsets, which is thought to arise from a three-dimensional process of buoyant mantle upwelling and melt migration focused beneath the centres of ridge segments. In contrast, fast-spreading mid-ocean ridges are characterized by smaller, segment-scale variations in crustal thickness, which reflect more uniform mantle upwelling beneath the ridge axis. Here we present a systematic study of the residual mantle Bouguer gravity anomaly of 19 oceanic transform faults that reveals a strong correlation between gravity signature and spreading rate. Previous studies have shown that slow-slipping transform faults are marked by more positive gravity anomalies than their adjacent ridge segments, but our analysis reveals that intermediate and fast-slipping transform faults exhibit more negative gravity anomalies than their adjacent ridge segments. This finding indicates that there is a mass deficit at intermediate- and fast-slipping transform faults, which could reflect increased rock porosity, serpentinization of mantle peridotite, and/or crustal thickening. The most negative anomalies correspond to topographic highs flanking the transform faults, rather than to transform troughs (where deformation is probably focused and porosity and alteration are expected to be greatest), indicating that crustal thickening could be an important contributor to the negative gravity anomalies observed. This finding in turn suggests that three-dimensional magma accretion may occur near intermediate- and fast-slipping transform faults.     

Comparison of mantle-derived matierals from different spatiotemporal settings: Implications for destructive and accretional processes of the North China Craton

Cratonic destruction or lithospheric thinning beneath North China makes it as one of the most ideal areas for the studying on the formation and evolution of continent. However, the mechanism, time, range and dynamic setting of the destruction, even the lithospheric status before the destruction, are contentious. The comparison among mantle xenoliths in the volcanic rocks from different captured times （e.g. Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic） and locations （e.g. intra-plate or its rim, the translithospheric Tanlu fault or the North-South Gravity Line）, and peridotitic massifs within the Sulu-Dabie ultrahigh-pressure metamorphism belt along the southern margin of the North China Craton, indicates that （1） the cratonic lithosphere is heterogeneous in structure and composition, and contains mantle weak zones; and （2） the Mesozoic-Cenozoic lithospheric thinning process is complex, including lateral spreading of lithosphere, interaction between melt and peridotite, non-even asthenospheric erosion （huge lithospheric thinning）, and the limited lithospheric accretion and thus thickening, which resulted in the final replacement of the refractory cratonic lithosphere by juvenile fertile mantle. In early Mesozoic, the integrity of the North China Craton was interrupted, even destroyed by subduction and collision of the Yangtze block. The mantle wedge of the North China Craton was also metasomatized and modified by melt/fluids revealed from the subducted Yangtze continent. Lithospheric mantle extension and tectonic intrusion of the North China Craton also occurred, accompanied by the asthenospheric upwelling that due to the detachement of the subducted Yangtze continent （orogenic root）. During early Cretaceous-early Tertiary, the huge thinning of lithosphere was triggered by the upwelling asthenosphere due to the subduction of the Pacific plate. Since late Tertiary, the cooling of the upwelling asthenosphere resulted in the replacement of the mantle in existence by the newly accreted lithosphere, accompanied with a little thickness in lithosphere and thus finally achieved the lithospheric thinning as a whole. The translithospheric faults, such as the Tanlu fault, play excellent channels for asthenospheric upwelling. Meanwhile, the channels in lithosphere are usually irregular, which resulted in different eruption times of magma. Peridotite xenolith in the basalts erupted at 100 Ma is mainly fertile, indicating such a fact, that is, the mantle replacement occurred before the eruption （e.g. 125--100 Ma） beneath the eastern part of the North China Craton.     

S-wave velocity of the crust around Tianshan Mountains inverted from seismic ambient noise tomography

We process ambient noise data from seismic stations deployed in central Asia to determine the crustal shear wave velocity structure beneath the Tianshan Mountians and surrounding area. About 748 inter-station Rayleigh wave empirical Green’s functions have been recovered to estimate the phase velocity dispersions over periods from 6 to 50 s using the image transformation technique. Results show that for short periods (6–20 s), the distribution of Rayleigh wave phase velocities is generally consistent with surface geology, with high velocities corresponding to mountain ranges and low velocities to sedimentary basins. Along two profiles, which trend from NE-SW and NW-SE, the shear wave velocity shows a pair of high velocity anomalies dipping in opposite directions beneath the Tianshan Mountains. At shallow depths, those high velocity anomalies roughly correlate with areas where the mountain front and the surrounding basin are connected. The profiles also show a narrow zone beneath the Tianshan Mountains, which may represent a route for the upwelling from upper mantle. Those observations suggest that the underthrusting of the Tarim Basin and Kazakh Shield combine with the weakness of the crust, which is heated by the upwelling from upper mantle, may play an important role on the reactivation of the Tianshan Mountains associated with the India-Eurasia collision.     

Frozen magma lenses below the oceanic crust

The Earth's oceanic crust crystallizes from magmatic systems generated at mid-ocean ridges. Whereas a single magma body residing within the mid-crust is thought to be responsible for the generation of the upper oceanic crust, it remains unclear if the lower crust is formed from the same magma body, or if it mainly crystallizes from magma lenses located at the base of the crust. Thermal modelling, tomography, compliance and wide-angle seismic studies, supported by geological evidence, suggest the presence of gabbroic-melt accumulations within the Moho transition zone in the vicinity of fast- to intermediate-spreading centres. Until now, however, no reflection images have been obtained of such a structure within the Moho transition zone. Here we show images of groups of Moho transition zone reflection events that resulted from the analysis of approximately 1,500 km of multichannel seismic data collected across the intermediate-spreading-rate Juan de Fuca ridge. From our observations we suggest that gabbro lenses and melt accumulations embedded within dunite or residual mantle peridotite are the most probable cause for the observed reflectivity, thus providing support for the hypothesis that the crust is generated from multiple magma bodies.     

Destruction geodynamics of the North China craton and its Paleoproterozoic plate tectonics

Much attention has been paid in the last two decades to the physical and chemical processes as well as temporal-spatial variations of the lithospheric mantle beneath the North China Craton. In order to provide insights into the geodynamics of this variation, it is necessary to thoroughly study the state and structure of the lithospheric crust and mantle of the North China Craton and its adjacent regions as an integrated unit. Based on the velocity structure of the crust and upper mantle constrained from seismological studies, this paper presents various available geophysical results regarding the lithosphere thickness, the nature of crust-mantle boundary, the upper mantle structure and deformation characteristics as well as their tectonic features and evolution systematics. Combined with the obtained data from petrology and geochemistry, a mantle flow model is proposed for the tectonic evolution of the North China Craton during the Mesozoic-Cenozoic. We suggest that subduction of the Pacific plate made the mantle underneath the eastern Asian continent unstable and able to flow faster. Such a regional mantle flow system would cause an elevation of melt/fluid content in the upper mantle of the North China Craton and the lithospheric softening, which, subsequently resulted in destruction of the North China Craton in different ways of delamination and thermal erosion in Yanshan, Taihang Mountains and the Tan-Lu Fault zone. Multiple lines of evidence recorded in the crust of the North China Craton, such as the amalgamation of the Archean eastern and western blocks, the subduction of Paleo-oceanic crust and Paleo-continental residue, indicate that the Earth in the Paleoproterozoic had already evolved into the plate tectonic system similar to the present plate tectonics.