Light-induced reduction of cytoplasmic free calcium in retinal rod outer segment

The response of retinal rod photoreceptors to light consists of a membrane hyperpolarization resulting from the decrease of a light-sensitive conductance in the outer segment. According to the calcium hypothesis, this conductance is blocked by a rise in intracellular free Ca triggered by light, a notion supported by the findings that an induced rise in internal Ca leads to blockage of the light-sensitive conductance and that light triggers a net Ca efflux from the outer segment via a Na-Ca exchanger, suggesting a rise in internal free Ca in the light. We have now measured both Ca influx and efflux through the outer segment plasma membrane and find that, contrary to the calcium hypothesis, light seems to decrease rather than increase the free Ca concentration in the rod outer segment. This result implies that Ca does not mediate visual excitation but it probably has a role in light adaptation.     

Effect of ions on the light-sensitive current in retinal rods

The effect of ions on the light-sensitive current of retinal rods was studied by sucking the inner segment into a tightly fitting capillary with the outer segment projecting into a flowing solution. This new method showed that the light-sensitive pathway, in which Na+ is the normal carrier of current, has an ionic selectivity different from that of other known sodium channels. Externàl calcium has a striking effect on the current, which increased about 20-fold when all calcium was removed. Reducing the sodium concentration gradient greatly prolonged the response to a flash of light, as would be expected if internal calcium blocks sodium channels and if light releases calcium which is subsequently extruded by a sodium-calcium exchange mechanism.     

甜菜碱通过钙通道升高鼠脾淋巴细胞内[Ca^2＋]i研究

研究甜菜碱对小鼠脾淋巴细胞内钙离子浓度的变化及相关钙通道的研究．应用激光共聚焦显微镜（LSCM）测小鼠脾淋巴细胞内钙浓度的变化，应用不同钙通道阻滞剂研究甜菜碱影响细胞内钙浓度变化途径．对终浓度4mmol／L甜菜碱作用淋巴细胞不同时间的细胞内钙离子浓度值分析表明：甜菜碱可以使淋巴细胞内Ca^2＋浓度升高，6h后效果最明显；对加入不同阻滞剂细胞内钙离子浓度变化分析表明：钙通道及蛋白阻滞剂硝苯地平、地尔硫卓、咪贝地尔、金雀异黄素对甜菜碱升高淋巴细胞内钙离子浓度没有影响；维拉帕米、新霉素、肝素、普鲁卡因能阻断甜菜碱对淋巴细胞内钙离子浓度的升高作用．由此可知：细胞内钙离子浓度升高主要通过以下途径：在G蛋白介导下通过影响L-型电压门控钙通道的仅。亚单位而引起外钙内流；通过影响胞内钙库的ILR钙通道和RyR钙通道而引起内钙外排．其共同引起胞质钙离子浓度增加．     

Light-suppressible, cyclic GMP-sensitive conductance in the plasma membrane of a truncated rod outer segment

Recent experiments by Fesenko et al and ourselves have shown that excised membrane patches from retinal rod outer segments contain a cyclic GMP-sensitive conductance which has electrical properties similar to those of the light-sensitive conductance. This finding supports the notion that cGMP mediates phototransduction (see ref. 3) by directly modulating the light-sensitive conductance. However, some uncertainty remained about whether the patch experiments had discriminated completely between plasma and intracellular disk membranes; thus the cGMP response in an excised membrane could have resulted from contaminating disk membrane fragments, which are known to contain a cGMP-regulated conductance. Furthermore, the patch conductance has not yet been shown to be light-suppressible, an ultimate criterion for identity with the light-sensitive conductance. We now report experiments on a truncated rod outer segment preparation which resolved these issues. The results demonstrated that the cGMP-sensitive conductance was present in the plasma membrane of the outer segment, and that in the presence of GTP the conductance could be suppressed by a light flash. With added ATP, the effectiveness of the light flash was reduced and the suppression was more transient. The effects of both GTP and ATP were consistent with the known biochemistry. From the maximum current inducible by cGMP, we estimate that approximately 1% of the light-sensitive conductance is normally open in the dark; this would give an effective free cGMP concentration of a few micromolar in the intact outer segment in the dark.     

Study on the effect of doxorubicin on expressions of genes encoding myocardial sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca^2＋ transport proteins and the effect of taurine on myocardial protection in rabbits

To investigate the effect of doxorubicin(DOX) on gene expression of the myocardial sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)Ca^2 transport proteins and the mechanism of taurine(Tau) protecting cardiac muscle cells, 9 rabbits were injected with DOX , 8 rabbits with DOX and Tau, and 9 rabbits with normal saline. Cardiac function , concentration of calcium in cardiomyocytes ( Myo [ Ca^2 ]i ), activity of SR Ca^2 -ATPase (SERCA2a) , level of SERCA2a mRNA and Ca^2 released channels(RYR2) mRNA were detected. The left ventricle tissues were observed by electron microscopy. The results showed that cardiac index, left ventricular systolic pressure, activity of SR Ca^2 -ATPase and level of SERCA2a mRNA decreased , while Myo[ Ca^2 ]i increased in DOX-treated rabbits. DOX could not affect the level of RYR2 mRNA. Tau intervention could alleviate the increase of left ventricular diastolic pressure, Myo[ Ca^2 ] i and the decrease of SERCA2a mRNA induced by doxorubicin. Tile results suggested that downregulation of SERCA2a gene expression was an important mechanism of DOX-induced cardiomyopathy and that Tau could partially improve the heart function by reducing calcium overload and alleviating downregulation of SERCA2a mRNA.     

Vanadate inhibits uncoupled Ca efflux but not Na--Ca exchange in squid axons.

Nerve cells can maintain a very low intracellular calcium concentration ([Ca2+]i) against large Ca2+ electrochemical gradients (see ref. 1 for review). The properties of the calcium efflux from these cells depend on [Ca2+]i (ref. 2), and within the physiological range, most Ca efflux depends on ATP (which stimulates with high affinity) and is insensitive to Na1, Na0 and Ca0 (uncoupled Ca efflux). When the [Ca2+]i is well above the physiological range, Ca efflux becomes only partially dependent on ATP (acting now with low affinity), is inhibited by Nai and is stimulated by Na0 and Ca0 (Na--Ca exchange). Orthovanadate, a powerful inhibitor of the (Na+ + K+)ATPase and the Na pump, also inhibits the Ca-stimulated ATPase activity, which is the enzymatic basis for the uncoupled Ca pump, in human red cells. The experiments reported here show that in squid axons the ATP-dependent uncoupled Ca efflux can be fully and reversibly inhibited by vanadate, whereas concentrations of vanadate 10 times higher have no effect on the Na--Ca exchange. This is another indication that the uncoupled Ca efflux represents an ATP-driven Ca pump, and supports the suggestion that the uncoupled Ca efflux and Na--Ca exchange are mediated by different mechanisms.     

Cyclic GMP can increase rod outer-segment light-sensitive current 10-fold without delay of excitation

To test the hypothesis that cyclic GMP is the internal messenger coupling rhodopsin activation to membrane excitation in vertebrate rod photoreceptors, we used a novel technique combining measurement of membrane currents of isolated salamander rods with a suction electrode and the introduction of cyclic GMP through a whole-cell recording patch pipette. Rupture of an attached patch was followed by a rapid (approximately 10 s), approximately 10-fold increase in outer-segment membrane current, all of which was light-sensitive. There was little change in the rising phase of the response to a saturating flash, but the duration of the saturated phase of the response increased approximately 10-fold. The effects reversed completely within 3-4 min after withdrawal of the cyclic GMP-containing patch pipette. A formal kinetic analysis shows that the first two observations are inconsistent with the postulate that cyclic GMP opens the light-sensitive conductance by simple binding to channels, unless free cyclic GMP in the outer segment is assumed to be much lower than published estimates, and most of the outer-segment cyclic GMP is bound and inexchangeable on the timescale of 200 ms. Furthermore, our results suggest that rod cyclic GMP is not involved solely in keeping the light-sensitive conductance open, but may also affect the activity of the phosphodiesterase that mediates cyclic GMP hydrolysis.     

电针镇痛对小鼠脑细胞游离Ca2+浓度的影响

实验探讨电针镇痛及钙通道阻断剂盐酸异博定(verapamil)、硝苯吡啶(nifedipine)对小鼠海马细胞及突触体游离Ca^2 浓度的影响．采用荧光染料Fura-2／AM测定在电针镇痛期间，小鼠海马细胞及突触体内游离钙浓度([Ca^2 ]i)的改变．结果表明电针镇痛时，海马细胞内[Ca^2 ]．升高，而突触体[Ca^2 ]i降低，向分离出的突触体培养液内加入钙通道阻断剂盐酸异博定、硝苯吡啶，突触体[Ca^2 ]．明显降低．提示电针的镇痛效应可能与海马神经细胞膜内、外钙离子浓度的变化有关．     

Electrogenic Na-Ca exchange in retinal rod outer segment

Previous work has suggested that a Na-Ca exchanger may have a key role in visual transduction in retinal rods. This exchanger is thought to maintain a low internal free Ca2+ concentration in darkness and to contribute to the rod's recovery after light by removing any internally released Ca2+. Little else is known about this transport mechanism in rods. We describe here an inward membrane current recorded from single isolated rods which appears to be associated with such external Na+-dependent Ca2+ efflux activity. External Na+, but not Li+, could generate this current; high external K+ inhibited it while small amounts of La3+ (10 microM) completely abolished it. The exchanger can also transport Sr2+, but not Ba2+ or other divalent cations. The exchange ratio was estimated to be 3Na+:1Ca2+. As well as demonstrating clearly the Na-Ca exchanger in the rod outer segment, our experiments also cast serious doubt on the commonly held view that light simply releases internal Ca2+ to bind to and block the light-sensitive conductance.     

Elevation of intracellular calcium reduces voltage-dependent potassium conductance in human T cells

Both voltage-activated potassium channels and the concentration of free intracellular calcium have been implicated in the activation of T lymphocytes. Using the patch-clamp technique, we now show an unexpected relationship between the level of intracellular calcium [Ca]i in human lymphocytes and the amplitude of a voltage-dependent current: the elevation of [Ca]i decreases the potassium conductance. This is in contrast to other systems where [Ca]i activates K+ channels. Our results suggest that the level of intracellular calcium regulates the effective number of K+ channels capable of being activated.     

Effects on the photoresponse of calcium buffers and cyclic GMP incorporated into the cytoplasm of retinal rods

It is generally accepted that the light response in retinal rods involves a reduction of ionic permeability (predominantly to Na+) in the plasma membrane of the outer segment and that this is mediated by an internal messenger which diffuses between the disk and plasma membranes. There is controversy, however, over the identity of the diffusible substance; two alternative schemes have received widespread support (for review see refs 1,2). According to the 'calcium hypothesis', light stimulates the release into the cytoplasm of calcium, leading to the blockage of channels which are normally open in darkness, whereas based on the 'cyclic nucleotide hypothesis', cyclic GMP causes the opening of channels in the dark, but is hydrolysed by a light-activated phosphodiesterase. We report here effects of introducing calcium buffers and cyclic GMP into the rod cytoplasm by means of a patch pipette, which seem to be inconsistent with the calcium hypothesis.     

Intracellular free calcium rise triggers nuclear envelope breakdown in the sea urchin embryo

Cytosolic free calcium has recently been implicated in the regulation of mitosis in plant and animal cells. We have previously found correlations between increases in the levels of intracellular free calcium [Ca2+]i and visible transitions of structure at nuclear envelope breakdown (NEBD) and the onset of anaphase during mitosis in sea urchin embryos and tissue culture cells. To go beyond correlations it is necessary to manipulate [Ca2+]i, and in sea urchin embryos this requires the injection of calcium-chelator buffer solutions as the changes in free calcium in the cell cycle are dependent on intracellular stores. We report here that blocking the increase in [Ca2+]i which just precedes NEBD prevents this from taking place and halts mitosis. Subsequent injections which momentarily increase [Ca2+]i, or a natural recovery of the higher calcium levels, result in NEBD and the successful continuation of mitosis. Similarly, artificially increasing calcium by early injections results in early NEBD. We conclude that the increase in [Ca2+]i preceding NEBD is an essential regulatory step required for entry into mitosis.     

Intracellular calcium ions decrease the affinity of the GABA receptor

Intracellular free Ca2+ [( Ca2+]i) plays a crucial role in the transduction of extracellular signals. It has been implicated in the modulation of light sensitivity in Limulus photoreceptors and in the efficacy of synaptic transmission; calcium ion fluxes are also involved in the postsynaptic facilitation of nicotinic transmission seen in sympathetic ganglia, and in activation of the acetylcholine (ACh) receptor. [Ca2+]i is also a second messenger for many biologically active substances. We recorded neuronal activities of sensory neurones from the bullfrog (Rana catesbiana), using the suction pipette method and a 'concentration clamp' technique to apply gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) to the cell. We report the first evidence that [Ca2+]i suppresses the GABA-activated Cl- conductance, by decreasing the apparent affinity of the GABA receptor.     

Regulation of Ca2+ channel expression at the cell surface by the small G-protein kir/Gem

Voltage-dependent calcium (Ca2+) channels are involved in many specialized cellular functions, and are controlled by intracellular signals such as heterotrimeric G-proteins, protein kinases and calmodulin (CaM). However, the direct role of small G-proteins in the regulation of Ca2+ channels is unclear. We report here that the GTP-bound form of kir/Gem, identified originally as a Ras-related small G-protein that binds CaM, inhibits high-voltage-activated Ca2+ channel activities by interacting directly with the beta-subunit. The reduced channel activities are due to a decrease in alpha1-subunit expression at the plasma membrane. The binding of Ca2+/CaM to kir/Gem is required for this inhibitory effect by promoting the cytoplasmic localization of kir/Gem. Inhibition of L-type Ca2+ channels by kir/Gem prevents Ca2+-triggered exocytosis in hormone-secreting cells. We propose that the small G-protein kir/Gem, interacting with beta-subunits, regulates Ca2+ channel expression at the cell surface.     

Physiological [Ca2+]i level and pump-leak turnover in intact red cells measured using an incorporated Ca chelator

The physiological actions of Ca2+ as a trigger and second messenger depend on the maintenance of large inward resting Ca2+ gradients across the cell plasma membrane. An ATP-fuelled Ca-pump, originally discovered and still best characterized in human red cells, is now believed to mediate resting Ca2+ extrusion in most animal cells. However, even in red cells, the truly physiological pump-leak turnover rate and cytoplasmic free Ca2+ level are unknown. Previous estimates were only very imprecise upper limits because normal intact red cells have a minute total pool of exchangeable Ca of less than 1 mumol 1 cells; Ca fluxes could not be measured without artificially increasing that pool with ionophores or disrupting the membrane to incorporate Ca buffers. Both procedures leave the membrane considerably leakier than in intact cells. Here, we have increased the exchangeable Ca pool by non-disruptively loading a Ca-chelator into intact cells, using intracellular hydrolysis of a membrane-permeant ester. The trapped chelator made the free cytoplasmic calcium concentration, [Ca2+]i, an easily defined function of directly measurable total cell Ca. We were then able to establish the physiological steady-state [Ca2+]i and pump-leak turnover rate of fresh cells suspended in their own plasma. If [Ca2+]i was lowered below the normal resting level, the Ca pump rate decreased according to the square of [Ca2+]i, and the inward Ca leak increased. The increase in leak did not develop if the cells were depleted of ATP and ADP.     

Inhibition of mitosis by an antibody to the mitotic calcium transport system

Calcium ions are important in the regulation of mitotic apparatus assembly and in the control of chromosome movement. Changes in intracellular free calcium concentration, [Ca2+]i are achieved by an intracellular calcium-transport system which is highly conserved in different cell types. A membrane-bound protein of relative molecular mass (Mr) 46,000 (46K) is part of this transport system and has been implicated in the regulation of the [Ca2+]i changes associated with the course of mitosis. A monoclonal antibody against this 46K protein inhibits Ca2+-uptake into isolated Ca2+-sequestering membranes and specifically labels membranes associated with the mitotic apparatus of sea urchin embryos. Here we investigate the relationship between the intracellular calcium transport system and mitosis by injection of this monoclonal antibody into living mitotic sea urchin embryos. We find that after injection the intracellular free calcium increases up to 10(-6) M, the mitotic apparatus is rapidly destroyed and the cell is irreversibly blocked in its development.     

Ca2+ signals induced from calcium stores in pancreatic islet β cells

In single rat pancreatic β cells,using fura-2 microfluorometry to measure [Ca2+]i response upon different stimuli,the ways of calcium regulation have been studied.When the extracellular calcium concentration was 2.5 mmol/L,either 60 mmol/L KCl,20 mmol/L D-glucose or 0.1 mmol/L tolbutamide induced increase in [Ca2+]i.Such increase in [Ca2+]i was absent when the same stimuli were applied under zero extracellular calcium.These results indicate that the increase of [Ca2+]i is induced by the activation of voltage-dependent calcium channels in β cells.The manifold forms of [Ca2+]i change induced by glucose imply that the effects of glucose are complex.5 mmol/L caffeine or 5 mmol/L MCh increase the [Ca2+]i ,which is independent of the external calcium,suggesting that [Ca2+]i can be regulated by Ca2+ release from not only the IP3-sensitive but also the ryanodine sensitive calcium stores in β cells.The latency of Ca responses for IP3 pathway (5 s) is faster than that for ryanodine pathway (30 s).It is concluded that there are multiple calcium stores in rat pancreatic β cells.     

Open structure of the Ca2+ gating ring in the high-conductance Ca2+-activated K+ channel

High-conductance voltage- and Ca(2+)-activated K(+) channels function in many physiological processes that link cell membrane voltage and intracellular Ca(2+) concentration, including neuronal electrical activity, skeletal and smooth muscle contraction, and hair cell tuning. Like other voltage-dependent K(+) channels, Ca(2+)-activated K(+) channels open when the cell membrane depolarizes, but in contrast to other voltage-dependent K(+) channels, they also open when intracellular Ca(2+) concentrations rise. Channel opening by Ca(2+) is made possible by a structure called the gating ring, which is located in the cytoplasm. Recent structural studies have defined the Ca(2+)-free, closed, conformation of the gating ring, but the Ca(2+)-bound, open, conformation is not yet known. Here we present the Ca(2+)-bound conformation of the gating ring. This structure shows how one layer of the gating ring, in response to the binding of Ca(2+), opens like the petals of a flower. The degree to which it opens explains how Ca(2+) binding can open the transmembrane pore. These findings present a molecular basis for Ca(2+) activation of K(+) channels and suggest new possibilities for targeting the gating ring to treat conditions such as asthma and hypertension.     

Role for microsomal Ca storage in mammalian neurones?

Alterations in the intracellular concentration of calcium ions [( Ca2+]i) are increasingly being found to be associated with regulatory functions in cells of all kinds. In muscle, an elevation of [Ca2+]i is the final link in excitation-contraction coupling while at nerve endings and in secretory cells, similar rises in [Ca2+]i are thought to mediate exocytosis. The discovery of calcium-activated ion channels indicated a role for intracellular calcium in the regulation of membrane excitability. Calcium transients associated with either intracellular release or the inward movement of Ca2+ across the membrane have been recorded in molluscan neurons and more recently in neurones of bullfrog sympathetic ganglia. Here, we report the first recordings of calcium transients in single mammalian neurones. In these experiments we have found that the methylxanthine, caffeine, causes the release of calcium from a labile intracellular store which can be refilled by Ca2+ entering the cell during action potentials.