The systematic positions of Orsodacne Latr. and Syneta Lac. (Coleoptera Chrysomelidae), in relation to characters of larvae,internal anatomy and tarsal vestiture

Summary

The male and female reproductive systems, gut and Malpighian tubules, and ventral nerve cord are described and figured for Orsodacne cerasi L. and Syneta betulae F.; the first instar larva of O. lineola is described and figured, and compared with already described larvae of Syneta betulae and other Chrysomelidae. The adhesive setae of the adult tarsi are described for both species and for representatives of Aulacoscelinae, Megascelinae, Megalopodinae, Sagrinae, Eumolpinae, Hispinae and Camptosomata. The mouthparts of adult Orsodacne and Aulacoscelis are described and figured, with consideration of pollen-eating adaptations in the family. It is concluded that Orsodacne is an isolated and primitive type whose nearest existing relative may be Cucujopsis Crowson in Australia, while Syneta may be allied to both Eumolpinae and Galerucinae. A new key to subfamilies of chrysomelid larvae is provided, and a phyletic dendrogram of the family is figured and discussed.     

The first instar larva of Aulacoscelis appendiculata n. sp. (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Aulacoscelinae) and its value in the placement of the Aulacoscelinae

Of all of the chrysomelid subfamilies, only the larvae of the Aulacoscelinae remain undescribed. The adults and first instar larva of Aulacoscelis appendiculata sp. n., from Panama are described, as well as the eggs. Larval characters, eggs, and oviposition behaviour are used to relatethe Aulacoscelinae with other chrysomelid subfamilies, in support of what is known to date concerning adult morphology.     

Camera traps capture images of predators of Caiman crocodilus yacare eggs (Reptilia: Crocodylia) in Brazil’s Pantanal wetlands

Camera traps were set up in forest nests in 2009, 2010 and 2012 to capture images of possible predators eating eggs of the Pantanal caiman, Caiman crocodilus yacare. We monitored 57 caiman nests; 42 nests were opened and the eggs were counted (mean = 25 eggs/nest, SD = 4.3). Females were present and captured at 38 of those nests. The remaining 15 nests were used as controls, and we did not capture the females or open the egg cavities of these nests. Most of the nests had the eggs eaten by predators, in both the disturbed group (38 nests) and the control group (13 nests). The main predators were carnivorous mammals, such as crab-eating foxes (Cerdocyon thous), coatis (Nasua nasua) and tayras (Eira barbara), although feral pigs (Sus scrofa) and armadillos (Dasypus novemcinctus) were also photographed eating caiman eggs. The lizard Salvator merianae was photographed eating eggs of two nests.     

On the natural history of Leptodactylus syphax with comments on the evolution of reproductive features in the L. pentadactylus species group (Anura,Leptodactylidae)

We describe the reproduction of Leptodactylus syphax from Brazil and attempt to trace the evolution of reproductive traits within the L. pentadactylus species group. We quantified the proportion of eggs/embryos from fresh nests. We test whether L. labyrinthicus and L. syphax tadpoles can prey on eggs from heterospecific foam nests. Egg clutches were found outside the water at the edges of rocky/seasonal streams, usually within excavated basins. Males beat the foam with their legs moving from side to side. Clutches do not have trophic eggs, since most of their eggs develop into tadpoles. Tadpoles cling on rocks in current/shallow waters. Only L. labyrinthicus tadpoles could prey on eggs from heterospecific foam nests. If the L. pentadactylus group is monophyletic, excavated basins and foam‐beating in lateral motions may be possible synapomorphies of this group. However, large adults, carnivorous tadpoles and trophic eggs appear to be associated synapomorphies of a less inclusive group.     

On the natural history of the South American pepper frog,Leptodactylus labyrinthicus (Spix, 1824) (Anura: Leptodactylidae)

Some species of Leptodactylus of the L. pentadactylus group lay their eggs outside water but the tadpoles need to reach water to complete the larval phase; other species complete development in terrestrial nests. Here we present details of the reproduction of L. labyrinthicus in south‐eastern Brazil. The proportion of tadpoles and trophic eggs in aged egg clutches was determined, as well as the growth of the tadpoles while in the nest. The gut contents of tadpoles that were in egg clutches of frogs were analysed. Adult males did not differ from females in size and had hypertrophied forearms and an enlarged spine on the thumb. Reproduction was initiated with the first rains of August/September and extended to mid‐January. Calling and spawning occurred at permanent or temporary water bodies. The foam nests were built in excavated basins outside of, but close to the water. The male determined the place of the basin construction; after amplexus, the female completed the excavation. The amplexus was axillary. One female spent the day after spawning in the foam. The eggs were pale grey, the yolk averaging 2.3?mm in diameter. The mean number of eggs was 2101 per egg clutch. The number of tadpoles in individual nests varied between 0.05% and 11.40% in relation to the total laid eggs. The tadpoles entered water when rains flooded the basin. The tadpoles grew to 12 times the weight of an individual egg while in the nest; no nesting tadpole was beyond stage 25. The longest time we followed tadpoles in a nest was 25 days. Tadpoles were found preying upon eggs of three other frog species and upon conspecific eggs. Males fought by grasping each other in a belly‐to‐belly position; the powerful arms and the thumb spines represent weapons. Even though males can reach maturity in the season following birth, small size would prevent them from establishing their own territory. All the species of the L. pentadactylus group may build their foam nests within excavated basins. The basins may protect the eggs and embryos from cannibalistic tadpoles and may have an anti‐desiccation effect. In order to produce trophic eggs, the female may delay laying additional unfertilized eggs until after the male has abandoned the foam nest. Anuran eggs represent an important food item for tadpoles after they leave the nest.     

Reproductive patterns of Trachycephalus venulosus (Laurenti, 1768) and Scinax fuscovarius (Lutz, 1925) from the Cerrado,Central Brazil

Animal mating systems are moulded by ecological factors, mainly the temporal patterns of reproduction. We report the reproductive period, use of microhabitats, clutch and egg sizes, reproductive efforts, occurrence of sexual size dimorphism, and the relation between body size and fecundity in the gravid females of Trachycephalus venulosus and Scinax fuscovarius at Serra da Bodoquena, Central Brazil. The reproduction of both species was correlated with the rainy season. Females of T. venulosus produced more eggs and their eggs were larger than those of S. fuscovarius. The females of both species were larger and heavier than males. The reproductive effort was measured as the ratio of gonad mass in relation to body mass. Females of both species presented similar reproductive efforts, but males of S. fuscovarius invested more in gonads compared to males of T. venulosus. Trachycephalus venulosus presented significant correlation between snout–vent length versus number of mature eggs and body mass versus number of mature eggs and ovarian mass. Scinax fuscovarius showed significant correlation between body mass versus ovarian mass. Trachycephalus venulosus is an explosive breeder, whereas S. fuscovarius has prolonged reproduction. These species are able to adapt to several types of habitat, due to behavioural and physiological plasticity.     

First record of nest site and egg guarding in the caecilian Ichthyophis bannanicus (Amphibia: Gymnophiona: Ichthyophiidae)

In late July 2010, three clutches of eggs of the caecilian amphibian Ichthyophis bannanicus (Gymnophiona: Ichthyophiidae) were found in the field in the suburbs of Beiliu City, south-east Guangxi Province, South China. This is the first observation of eggs, guarding and characteristics of oviposition sites in the field for this species. Ichthyophis bannanicus is oviparous and there is no post-hatching parental care. The terrestrial oviposition sites were located in underground chambers close to small streams or rice fields. Nest chambers were connected to the surface by two small openings. Clutches contained 24–68 eggs, and were each associated with one or two adult females.     

Predation on eggs of Schneider’s dwarf caiman,Paleosuchus trigonatus (Schneider, 1807), by armadillos and other predators

Nests of Schneider’s dwarf caiman, Paleosuchus trigonatus, were located in the forests around three streams that drain into the Xingu River, Brazilian Amazonia, in October 2014. Camera traps were installed at the edge of four nests to document predators and female parental care. At two nests, females unsuccessfully defended their nests against one or more giant armadillos, Priodontes maximus, and nine-banded armadillos, Dasypus novemcinctus. Both armadillo species responded to the attack by fleeing and returning on the opposite side of the nest by going around the tree under which the nest was located. Giant armadillos have never before been recorded consuming caiman eggs and their diet has been described as consisting mostly of ants and termites. Another species of armadillo, Cabassous unicinctus, was also registered digging into a nest and probably consuming eggs, though it is generally considered to be primarily insectivorous. A tayra (Eira barbara), lizard (Tupinambis teguixin) and coati (Nasua nasua) were also registered taking eggs from nests during the day, but we obtained no registers of nest defence by caimans during the day. The three nests were attacked after 60 days of incubation, when the eggs were well developed.     

Biometry of brooding in seven species of amphipod (Crustacea) from the Clyde Sea area

Brood size was found to be correlated linearly with female body length in all species studied, except Ampelisca macrocephala, which is usually a single brooded species. Of the six multi-brooded species, Lembos websteri, Stegocephaloides christianiensis, Echinogammarus pirloti and Gammaropsis nitida produced small numbers of large eggs in the winter and large numbers of small eggs in the summer. In Bathyporeia pilosa larger numbers of smaller eggs were produced by the overwintering generation. In Corophium bonnellii, both maximum and minimum brood sizes were produced by the summer generation. The largest broods relative to female body size were produced by the smaller species. In L. websteri, C. bonnellii and B. pilosa mean female size was smaller in the summer than the winter generation.     

Effective strategy of the overwintering of semiaquatic bugs: overwintering of Velia caprai (Heteroptera: Gerromorpha: Veliidae)

Overwintering of Velia caprai was studied during the winter months 2006–2007 in the area of South Bohemia (Czech Republic) by (1) field phenological observations and samples, (2) study of artificially established experimental cohorts in an unheated glasshouse, and (3) auxiliary experiments in a laboratory. Velia caprai has a unique way of overwintering within the gerromorphan bugs that is rare among insects generally; it can overwinter in both an adult and an egg stage. Most females reach sexual maturity before overwintering, mate with mature males, overwinter actively on the water surface and lay eggs during the winter. The dormant eggs can be induced to hatch by increasing temperatures. Winter oviposition can be interpreted as a sign of a risk‐spreading reproductive strategy. The overwintering of both adults and eggs provides a chance to adapt to changes in the local environmental conditions and could be an important determinant in broad variability of life‐history traits.     

Life history of Subulina octona (Brugüière) (Gastropoda: Pulmonata: Subulinidae) based on four-year laboratory observations and a comparative histological analysis of egg-retaining and ovoviviparous subulinids

In the present study, we aimed to characterize the life history of the land snail Subulina octona integrating information on life-history traits and morphology. We also compared the histology of the free-oviduct and spermoviduct of ovoviviparous and egg-retaining species of subulinids. We considered as ovoviviparous the species in which the complete embryonic development as well as egg hatching occurs inside the parent’s body and, at the end of this process, the parent releases juveniles instead of eggs. We considered as egg-retaining the species in which a great part of the embryonic development takes place inside the parent’s body and the eggs laid contain well-developed embryos. The results showed that the free-oviduct of both ovoviviparous and egg-retaining species shows a histological arrangement that confers greater strength to its walls and is probably related to egg retention. The wall of the spermoviduct is formed by pseudostratified columnar epithelium, with cell apical processes (probably cilia), and by underlying secretory cells. In gravid egg-retaining snails, the eggshells appear in close contact with the secretory cells of the spermoviduct. This fact suggests that these cells play a role in eggshell formation. The present study is the first account for histological features of S. octona, Allopeas gracile and Allopeas micra. The life history of S. octona is a combination of long lifespan, early sexual maturity, indeterminate growth and egg retention. Egg retention limits the number of young that can be produced in one reproductive event. However, the reproductive strategy adopted by S. octona, associating egg retention and K-strategism, compensates this cost of retaining eggs, because the reproductive success may be enhanced as a result of the higher survival of juveniles and the possibility of performing several reproductive events during the year.     

A report on two large collections of the squat lobster Munidopsis platirostris (Decapoda,Anomura, Munidopsidae) from the Caribbean,with notes on their parasites,associates, and reproduction

The reproduction and parasite associates of the squat lobster Munidopsis platirostris (A. Milne Edwards and Bouvier, 1894) were investigated based on collections made in the Bahamas and Curaçao with grassmat and bundled fishing net traps used to collect sipunculan worms and other small invertebrates. Size of ovigerous M. platirostris was significantly correlated with clutch size for females from both localities but females from the Bahamas produced significantly more eggs (on average 10.1 eggs/clutch) than females from Curaçao (on average 6.6 eggs/clutch). Early embryos of M. platirostris from the Bahamas were 0.74–0.82 mm in diameter, similar to some other species of Munidopsidae as well as Chirostylidae. Two species of crustaceans, another squat lobster and a leptostracan, as well as a limpet mollusc, were collected with M. platirostris in the Bahamas, while a sipunculan was an associated species in a Curaçao collection. One specimen of M. platirostris had an unidentified cryptoniscoid epicaridean isopod, possibly representing a new genus and species. Two specimens of M. platirostris each had one rhizocephalan externa of a species belonging to Lernaeodiscus Müller, 1862 but their morphology does not match that of L. schmitti Reinhard, 1950, the only species in the genus known from squat lobsters in the western Atlantic. Additional materials and tools, such as DNA analysis, are needed to describe these potentially new parasites and we suggest that use of these traps may be an effective method to obtain additional samples.     

Male pheasant‐tailed jacanas commit infanticides to avoid cuckoldry when paternity of eggs is doubtful

Many hypotheses have been proposed to explain infanticide, killing the young or destruction of eggs by conspecific adults. We report cases of infanticide in the polyandrous pheasant‐tailed jacana (Hydrophasianus chirurgus) of Taiwan. In 2004, three males and one female bred at our study site. The female mated with the three males sequentially and laid clutches for all of them. Infanticidal behaviour was observed in all males and in all but one clutch, the first clutch of the breeding season. The infanticidal males threw out the first one or two eggs of a clutch, but then accepted replacement eggs and incubated normally. Because the intervals between copulation with different males were short (1–10 days) and sperm can remain viable within the female reproductive tract for at least 4–5 days, sperm competition among the males may have been intense, and the paternity of the first few eggs in each clutch was doubtful. We suggest that male pheasant‐tailed jacana may use infanticide as a strategy to avoid cuckoldry when the paternity of eggs is in doubt.     

An unusual Botanophila–Epichloë association in a population of orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata) in Poland

Grass-infecting Epichloë fungi depend on flies of the genus Botanophila (Diptera: Anthomyiidae) for the transfer of spermatia (gametes) and fertilization. Flies lay eggs on fungal structures and their larvae use this as a source of food, hence, this interaction is generally considered to be obligatory and mutualistic. In the present study, we monitored the occurrence of Botanophila flies in a population of Epichloë-infected wild orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata) in central Poland. The number of eggs per stroma ranged from 0 to 14. Overall, 24.83% of all examined stromata had no eggs or brood chambers, whereas the incidence of fertilized stromata ranged from 89.66% to 100% depending on the year. Nearly all stromata that exhibited no signs of fly visitation were fertilized. These results suggest that in the Polish population of D. glomerata, sexual reproduction of Epichloё fungi depends on spermatia-carrying vectors other than Botanophila.     

Tetrastichinae (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) associated with spider egg sacs

Aranobroter rayorae, gen. et sp. n., is described as a gregarious predator of spider eggs within egg sacs of Metepeira incrassata (Araneidae) from Veracruz, Mexico. Baryscapus uetzi, sp. n., is described as an internal parasitoid of A. rayorae. The biology of these two species is discussed. A review of Tetrastichinae associated with spider egg sacs includes new North American records.     

Two new Encarsia species (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae) reared from eggs of Cicadellidae (Hemiptera: Auchenorrhyncha) in Argentina: an unusual new host association

Males of two undescribed Encarsia species were reared from eggs of two cicadellid species during a study of egg parasitoids of corn leafhopper, Dalbulus maidis (DeLong and Wolcott) in northwestern Argentina. Samples were collected during the summer of 2004–2007 using sentinel eggs, and several males of a new species of Encarsia (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea: Aphelinidae) were obtained. A single male of a closely related Encarsia species, also previously undescribed, was reared from an egg of another cicadellid on maize, Plesiommata mollicella (Fowler). These are the first records of any Encarsia species reared from eggs of Cicadellidae. The two new species are described as Encarsia dalbulae Polaszek and Luft Albarracin sp. nov., and Encarsia mollicellae Polaszek and Luft Albarracin sp. nov.     

Halvorsenius exilis gen. et sp. nov., a new didymozoid trematode from the mackerel Scomber scombrus L.

Summary

A new genus and species of nematobothriine didymozoid, Halvorsenius exilis, is described. These worms occur unpaired and unencysted in the connective tissue of the mackerel Scomber scombrus, especially in the pericardium, the ‘throat’ region, the orbits and the region of the kidneys. Halvorsenius belongs to a group of genera which possess three uterine loops and two testes, but can be distinguished by the atrophy of the gut and other features. Live worms occur only in young mackerel, although aggregations of eggs are found in older fish. It appears that the eggs are retained in utero until the death of the worm and that there is no obvious mechanism for voiding the eggs from the fish other than through the death of this host.     

Breeding biology of Phyllomedusa azurea Cope, 1862 and P. sauvagii Boulenger, 1882 (Anura) from the Cerrado,Central Brazil

Phyllomedusa azurea and P. sauvagii are treefrogs from seasonal dry environments of Central Brazil. We report on reproductive and other natural history features of these species. The study was carried out in Serra da Bodoquena, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil. The reproductive period was determined by the presence of vocalizing males, amplectant pair or presence of tadpoles. The reproductive effort was measured as the ratio of gonad mass in relation to body mass (BM). The reproduction of both species was correlated with the rainy season. Female P. sauvagii produced more eggs and their eggs were larger than those of P. azurea. Both species showed sexual dimorphism in relation to the snout–vent length (SVL) and BM. The mating behaviour of both species was similar. Males in both species showed similar reproductive efforts, but females of P. azurea invested more in gonads compared to the males of P. sauvagii. Phyllomedusa azurea showed a significant relation between SVL versus number of the mature eggs (NME), and P. sauvagii between SVL versus NME and BM versus ovarian mass.