The reproductive strategies of clausiliid land snails from Northern Vietnam (Gastropoda: Stylommatophora)

Under laboratory conditions we scrutinized the reproduction and development of two clausiliid land snail species from northern Vietnam: Phaedusa paviei (Morlet, 1892) and Oospira vanbuensis (Bavay and Dautzenberg, 1899). These species, very similar in shell size and shape, feature different reproductive modes. The former is viviparous, giving birth to one or two neonates on a single occasion, with the number of developing embryos retained in the reproductive tract ranging from 1 to 11. The embryonic shells are 1.8–4.7 mm in height. The latter species is oviparous and produces eggs in clutches (four to six per clutch). Hatching occurs 18–21 days after egg-laying. Both species exhibit a similar growth pattern: the ultimate shell size is attained after 6.5–8.5 months and reproduction starts 5–7 months later. The distribution of viviparous reproduction among the Phaedusinae and its taxonomic importance are discussed.     

Reproductive biology and strategies of nine meloid beetles from Central Europe (Coleoptera: Meloidae)

The reproductive biology of meloid species from Central Europe is investigated by means of laboratory breeding experiments. They show that the total reproductive potential of meloids, with up to 40,000 eggs, largely exceeds prior data. Furthermore, the number of laid eggs strongly relates to the way by which the triungulins find their host. Clutch size correlates significantly with the size of the beetle, while egg size is independent of this. Both clutch size and egg size decrease with each oviposition. For some species, reproductive data are used to demonstrate how they have adapted to their habitat and to point out existing trade‐offs. Based on the obtained results and on an evaluation of the relevant literature, three types of reproductive strategy can be distinguished within the meloids: (1) very high reproductive rates of open field species with phoretic larvae; (2) average reproductive rates of forest populations of species with phoretic larvae and of species the larvae of which search the nests of their hosts actively; and (3) small to average reproductive rates of those species depositing their clutches in the immediate proximity of their hosts' nests.     

Growth of Dipodomys ordii (Rodentia: Heteromyidae)

Growth rates were determined for laboratory - reared Dipodomys ordii pallidus Durrant & Setzer. Instantaneous growth rates were used to express increase of body weight, total length, tail length, ear length and hind foot length as rates between times of measurements and the instantaneous percentage of maximum size. Data were analyzed for growth periods of 1 – 3, 4 – 15, 16 – 29 and 30 – 70 days. All five parameters provided significant correlations of growth with age during all growth periods. Even though all of the growth parameters correlate with age, these parameters cannot be reliably used to predict age.     

Limb regeneration in a common South-American littoral crab Cyrtograpsus angulatus

The intermoult period (time elapsed between two successive moults) is shortened, its variation among individuals and the size increment at moult are reduced, in juveniles of the littoral crab Cyrtograpsus angulatus when the number of regenerating limbs increases. Bud growth rates of regenerating limbs are calculated from plots of R₄ (length of third or fourth limb bud. 100/carapace width) as a function of relative time, considering that the intermoult period corresponds to 100%. Bud growth rates remain similar for crabs with a different number of limbs autotomized soon after moult. Regeneration of a second set of autotomized limbs follows autotomy if it occurs before the growing buds of a first set have a relative size R₄ < 16. Buds of contralateral limbs autotomized at different times during the moult cycle have similar final R₄ values because their growth rates are higher for limbs lost later. Buds of limbs, autotomized after part of the moult cycle has elapsed since moult, also tend to grow faster than those lost earlier. Neither the intermoult period nor the size increment at moult are modified by a second autotomy, after or before the critical R₄ value, and by the autotomy of a single limb in different moments of the moult cycle.     

Differential responses to nitrogen form and concentration for Oryzopsis hymenoides and Elymus lanceolatus

In a greenhouse experiment, effects of nitrogen form and concentration on productivity and dry matter allocation differed between two species native to semiarid ecosystems of the Great Basin. Aboveground production of green surface area and of dry matter were consistently enhanced by increased nitrogen for the rhizomatous grass Elymus lanceolatus , but not for the bunchgrass Oryzopsis hymenoides . These differences were likely due to inherently low growth rates of O. hymenoides . Aboveground dry matter allocation also differed between the two species. O. hymenoides had more leaves per tiller with increased nitrogen, whereas leaf size but not number increased for E. lanceolatus . Furthermore, increases in tiller density with increased nitrogen for E. lanceolatus were almost three times greater than those for O. hymenoides . E. lanceolatus , but not O. hymenoides , was sensitive to the form of nitrogen supplied to the plants. When NH 4 -N was the only form of nitrogen supplied, high concentrations of NH 4 -N inhibited aboveground production of E. lanceolatus .     

Interspecific differences in early life‐history traits in crested newts (Triturus cristatus superspecies,Caudata, Salamandridae) from the Balkan Peninsula

We studied intraspecific and interspecific variations of early life‐history traits for four crested newt species with different habitat preferences. Although we found considerable variation in size and growth rate between offspring of conspecific females, the species effect appeared to be much more pronounced. The crested newt species we examined differed in egg size, size of larvae at hatching and growth rate. Triturus dobrogicus appeared to be the outlier species among these species, and showed (1) the smallest egg size, (2) the smallest larval size at hatching and (3) the longest larval period, resulting in the largest metamorphosed juveniles.     

New and little-known species of Didemnidae (Ascidiacea,Tunicata) from Australia (part I)

Continuing examination of colonial ascidians in museum collections is revealing further diversity in the family Didemnidae, which abounds in the tropical Indo-West Pacific and around the Australian continent (Kott, 2001). From the present work, it is apparent that much remains to be learnt about this fauna. Of the 45 species discussed in this paper, 16 are new. Larvae are described for the first time for Polysyncraton pedunculatum Kott, 2001 and P. rica Kott, 2001. Amongst the synonymy established in this paper Didemnoides tropicum Sluiter, 1909 is found to be a junior synonym of Lissoclinum patella (Gottschaldt, 1898) and Trididemnum vermiforme Kott, 2001 a junior synonym of T. nobile Kott, 2001. Didemnum nekozita Tokioka, 1967 is found to be a valid species distinct from Polysyncraton cuculliferum (Sluiter, 1909). Prolific replication rates, rapid colony growth, flexibility in growth form and a viviparous habit result in convergence tending to small zooid size, and similar large, increasingly complex colonies found in this family contribute to species diversity around the whole of the Australian continent.     

Ecophysiology of the temperate desert halophytes: Allenrolfea occidentalis and Sarcobatus vermiculatus

Numerous basins of the intermountain area often have extensive playa surfaces that are nearly devoid of vegetation. Margins of these playas support sparse communities dominated by chenopod shrubs Allenrolfea occidentalis (iodine bush) and Sacrobatus vermiculatus (black greasewood). These plants establish and persist in an environment where halomorphic soils induce extreme osmotic stress and atmospheric precipitation is very low and erratic and occurs largely during the winter when temperatures are too low for growth. We measured net CO 2 assimilation rates, leaf conductances, transpiration rates, water-use efficiencies, and stem xylem potentials for these two C3 species. Data were collected in above-average (1991) and below-average (1992) precipitation years. Net CO 2 assimilation rates for Allenrolfea were statistically similar in 1991 and 1992 but in general declined for Sarcobatus in 1992. For both species, leaf conductances and leaf transpiration rates declined significantly from 1991 to 1992, with the decline greater for Sarcobatus . Water-use efficiencies doubled from 1991 to 1992 for both plant species. Predawn xylem water potentials were -2.2 and -3.3 MPa for Allenrolfea and -1.8 and -2.6 MPa for Sarcobatus by September 1991 and 1992, respectively. Afternoon xlem water potentials were -3.1 and -2.0 MPa for Allrolfea and -2.6 and -2.2 for Sarcobatus beginning in May 1991 and 1992, respectively. Xylem water potentials dropped to -5.0 MPa for Allenrolfea and -3.4 MPa for Sarcobatus by September for both 1991 and 1992. For Allenrolfea , in general, the total soil water potential within the zone of maximum root activity is more negative than the plant's predawn xylem potential, which suggests that the plant is partially phreatophytic and/or has a large capacitance due to its extensive woody root system.     

Controls on radial growth of mountain big sagebrush and implications for climate change

Mountain big sagebrush ( Artemisia tridentata Nutt. ssp. vaseyana ) covers large areas in arid regions of western North America. Climate-change models predict a decrease in the range of sagebrush, but few studies have examined details of predicted changes on sagebrush growth and the potential impacts of these changes on the community. We analyzed effects of temperature, precipitation, and snow depth on sagebrush annual ring width for 1969 to 2007 in the Gunnison Basin of Colorado. Temperature at all times of year except winter had negative correlations with ring widths; summer temperature had the strongest negative relationship. Ring widths correlated positively with precipitation in various seasons except summer; winter precipitation had the strongest relationship with growth. Maximum snow depth also correlated positively and strongly with ring width. Multiple regressions showed that summer temperature and either winter precipitation or maximum snow depth, which recharges deeper soil horizons, are both important in controlling growth. Overall, water stress and perhaps especially maximum snow depth appear to limit growth of this species. With predicted increases in temperature and probable reduced snow depth, sagebrush growth rates are likely to decrease. If so, sagebrush populations and cover may decline, which may have substantial effects on community composition and carbon balance.     

Scaling of the pieces of the Aristotle's lantern in five species of Strongylocentrotus (Echinodermata: Echinoidea)

The lengths of the demipyramids and rotules and the weights of the demipyramids, rotules, epiphyses, compasses, and teeth of the Aristotle's lantern from Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis, S. franciscanus, S. intermedius, S. nudus and S. purpuratus over a size range of 46–76 mm horizontal diameter were measured. The rates of increase in size of the lantern pieces of S. franciscanus when scaled with increase in body size are greater than those of the other species. The growth of S. franciscanus to a much larger body size and its continued increase in relative gonadal production at a size at which it ceases in S. intermedius and S. purpuratus may result from a greater feeding capacity related to the size of the lantern pieces.     

Morphology and composition of the internal axis in two morphologically contrasting deep-water sea pens (Cnidaria: Octocorallia)

Umbellula encrinus Linnaeus, 1758 and Anthoptilum grandiflorum (Verrill, 1879) are two species of deep-water sea pens (Cnidaria: Octocorallia) commonly found in the Northwest Atlantic. These sea pens are frequently caught as fishing bycatch, but little is known about their biology. Here we characterise the internal skeleton (axis) of these two morphologically contrasting species, in terms of axis carbonate composition and proportion, morphology and metrics (i.e. cross-sectional area and weight) through gradients along their lengths. Using the conspicuous growth rings present in the axis of U. encrinus we also estimated intra-colonial variation in radial growth rates for this species. X-ray diffraction (XRD) analyses revealed that the carbonate portion of the axis is composed of magnesian calcite (Ca, Mg)CO₃ in both species. On average, the axis is composed of 71% carbonate material in U. encrinus, and 65% carbonate in A. grandiflorum. The carbonate proportion was greatly reduced from base (71%) to tip (33%) in the axis of U. encrinus, while in A. grandiflorum changes were less abrupt (~6% difference from base to tip). In U. encrinus, the axis is quadrangular in shape through its whole length, twisting longitudinally. Twisting can occur in both clockwise and anti-clockwise directions. The axis of A. grandiflorum varied from elliptical near the base to cylindrical through most of the remaining length, with no twisting observed. Axes’ cross-sectional areas also decreased with distance from the base in both species, being the largest near the base. Estimated radial growth rates in U. encrinus were variable within a single colony, ranging between 0.04 and 0.08 mm.yr^?1. This is the first study to describe changes along the axes of sea pens, and to characterise the axes in the studied species. It provides a baseline for studies considering sea pens’ skeletons (e.g. ocean acidification and palaeoceanography).     

Growth rate and thermal tolerance of two endangered Snake River snails

We investigated the temperature tolerance and growth of 2 federally protected freshwater gastropods from southern Idaho: Valvata utahensis and Pyrgulopsis idahoensis . Snails were collected in the Snake River and transported to the laboratory where they were kept under highly controlled conditions. In varying-temperature, short-duration experiments, the temperatures tolerated by both species were between 7°C and 34°C. In constant-temperature, longduration experiments, growth rates were between 0.004 mm ? d -1 and 0.016 mm ? d -1 , and we created growth curves for both species that were previously lacking. Our results are among the first to report temperature tolerances and growth rates of native Snake River snails, and we discuss implications for the biology and management of both species.     

The hermit crab Sympagurus dimorphus (Anomura: Parapaguridae) at the edge of its range in the south-western Atlantic Ocean: population and morphometry features

Sympagurus dimorphus is one of the 12 hermit crab species recorded for Argentinean waters. Despite the high abundance registered in some scallop fishing grounds, its biology remains little known. In the present study, we analysed some population features of S. dimorphus living in symbiosis with Epizoanthus paguricola from a series of samples taken in the Argentine Sea, south-western Atlantic Ocean. Our results showed that S. dimorphus was commonly found from 40ºS to lower latitudes, in a patchy distribution along the shelf-break front. The overall sex ratio was 1:1. The smallest ovigerous female measured 6 mm in cephalothoracic shield length and this size was used as parameter to define the size of juveniles. The sex ratio size class pattern corresponded to Type IV or anomalous curve. S. dimorphus is a dimorphic species, as evidenced by the larger size of the males and the positive allometric growth of the right cheliped. The species also showed asymmetry, with the left uropod always larger than the right one. To the best to our knowledge, this is the first report on population features and relative growth for a member of the genus, based on long-term sampling. This species presents a patchy distribution along the shelf-break of Argentina. Its density tended to decrease over the five-year sampling period regarding the recruitment of hermits associated with colonies of zoanthids. In addition, the relatively homogeneous nature of this refuge does not seem to influence the growth of the hermit crab, which presents sexual dimorphism in relation to the sex/size conditions.     

Diets of sympatric Lahontan cutthroat trout and nonnative brook trout: implications for species interactions

Nonnative brook trout ( Salvelinus fontinalis ) have been implicated in declines of stream-living Lahontan cutthroat trout ( Oncorhynchus clarki henshawi ), a threatened trout endemic to the Lahontan Basin of northeastern California, southeastern Oregon, and northern Nevada. Brook trout may displace Lahontan cutthroat trout through 2 mechanisms: interspecific predation and competition for food. To evaluate the evidence for these alternatives, we examined stomach contents of 30 trout of each species captured in the North Fork Humboldt River, northeastern Nevada, to compare number, size, and taxonomic composition of prey. Taxonomic dietary overlap was high (81.4%) between brook and Lahontan cutthroat trout. Both species were nonselective in their feeding habits. Lahontan cutthroat trout consumed over 2.5 times as many prey on average, but brook trout consumed significantly larger prey. No trout of either species occurred in fish diets. Only a single fish, a Paiute sculpin ( Cottus beldingi ), was found in stomachs, and the majority (>90%) of prey consisted of insect taxa. Size and number of prey consumed were positively related to fish size for Lahontan cutthroat trout, but not for brook trout. These results do not provide compelling evidence to suggest feeding by Lahontan cutthroat trout is limited by presence of large numbers of brook trout in the North Fork Humboldt River. However, fundamental differences in each species utilization of food in this system indicate that a better understanding of observed differences may help to explain the variable success of brook trout invasions across stream habitats in the Lahontan Basin and their potential effects on Lahontan cutthroat trout.     

Biogeography and physiological adaptations of the brine fly genus Ephydra (Diptera: Ephydridae) in saline waters of the Great Basin

Four species of the genus Ephydra are commonly found in saline waters within the hydrologic Great Basin: E. hians, E. gracilis, E. packardi , and E. auripes . Though none of these brine flies is endemic (distributions also occur outside the Great Basin), they all inhabit distinctive habitat types and form the characteristic benthic insect fauna of inland saline-water habitats. The affinities of each species for different salinity levels and chemical compositions, and ephemeral to perennial habitats, appear to form the basis for Biogeographic distribution patterns. Within any habitat, changing salinity conditions over time may impose physiological or ecological constraints and further alter patterns of population productivity and the relative abundance of co-inhabiting species. Based on the physiology of salt tolerance known for these species, high salinity conditions favor E. hians in alkaline water and E. gracilis in chloride water. At lower salinities, based on limited habitat data, E. auripes and E. packardi are often more common, again showing respective preferences for alkaline and chloride chemical conditions. Specialized adaptations for alkaline carbonate waters are found in the larval Malpighian tubule lime gland of the alkali fly E. hians , while high salt tolerance in E. gracilis appears to be conferred by high hemolymph osmolality. Adaptation to ephemeral and low salinity conditions may be accomplished by swift adult colonizing ability and rapid larval development rates. It is hypothesized that adaptive specialization in both physiology and life history and varied geochemistry of saline water habitats across the Great Basin produce the Biogeographic pattern of distributions for species in this genus. This perspective on the genus Ephydra , and possibly other biota of mineral-rich Great Basin waters, suggests that interconnections among pluvial lakes may be less relevant to aquatic biogeography than chemical profiles developing in remnant lakes and ponds with the progression of arid post-pluvial climatic conditions.     

Effects of turbidity on feeding rates of Lahontan cutthroat trout ( Oncorhynchus clarki henshawi ) and Lahontan redside shiner ( Richardsonius egregius )

The spawning of Lahontan cutthroat trout ( Oncorhynchus clarki henshawi ) in Summit Lake, Nevada, has reportedly declined since the early 1970s, coincident with the appearance of Lahontan redside shiner ( Richardsonius egregius ) in the lake. We investigated the relative predatory abilities of the 2 fish species foraging on live Daphnia magna in turbidity conditions commonly observed in Summit Lake. Experiments were performed under controlled light and temperature condition. In separate trials we fed trout and shiner 1 of 3 size classes of D. magna (1.7 mm, 2.2 mm, and 3.0 mm) at 6 levels of turbidity ranging from 3.5 to 25 NTU. Feeding rates for both species varied inversely with turbidity for all prey sizes. Feeding rates of shiner were greater than trout at all turbidity levels. In low turbidity (5 TNU), shiner consumed approximately 3% more prey during 2-h feeding trials. However, at high turbidity levels, the difference in feeding rates between species was proportionally higher (10%). At high turbidity levels (≥ 20 NTU) trout predation rates were relative insensitive to prey size. However, shiner continued to consume more, larger prey at the highest turbidity levels. These results indicate that Lahontan redside shiner may be superior to Lahontan cutthroat trout as zooplankton predators at high turbidity levels, and may explain the recent success of shiner in Summit Lake.     

Influence of substrate water content on neonate size in the prairie skink, Eumeces septentrionalis

The microenvironment of the nest surrounding most reptilian eggs is known to have a strong influence on the growth and development of embryos. This is particularly true of substrate moisture content. The results of this study suggest that neonatal body size (SVL) increases with increasing substrate wetness in the prairie skink, Eumeces septentrionalis . These results agree with studies conducted on other species of reptiles. This study is the first to provide evidence for this relationship in a scineid lizard.