New records of bats (Chiroptera: Mammalia) from Malawi,east-central Africa,with an assessment of their status and conservation

This paper reports 97 new species-locality records of bats from Malawi. Of particular interest are four species of bats (Rhinolophus swinnyi, Triaenops persicus, Eptesicus flavescens, Tadarida nigeriae) which have not been recorded previously from Malawi. The relative status of bats in Malawi was estimated and the species were placed in five categories ranging from ‘rarely-recorded’ to ‘very commonly-recorded’. Of the 59 species of bats known to occur in Malawi, 28 are rarely-recorded in Malawi. The relative status and species-locality records of bats were analysed to assess which species, and which localities, need special conservation effort. Seventeen species which are rare throughout their ranges in Africa as well as being rarely-recorded or seldom-recorded in Malawi, are considered to require special effort. Checklists of bats are given for 11 localities, including Liwonde NP in the Upper Shire Valley (29 spp.), two localities on the Shire Highlands (28, 22 spp.), Thyolo on the boundary between the Shire Highlands and Phalombe Plain (22 spp.), and Chiromo in the Lower Shire valley (30 spp.), which have particularly rich bat faunas. Localities in need of urgent conservation effort include Ntchisi FR in the Central Region, and Chiromo. Ninety-two percent of the species of bats known to occur in Malawi have been recorded from the Southern Region. Most of these species will probably continue to survive in southern Malawi provided that the National Parks (especially Liwonde NP) are maintained and well-managed, and there is no further destruction of the indigenous vegetation at Chiromo and Thyolo, and on the Shire Highlands.     

More eudriline earthworms from eastern Nigeria

Summary

During the rains of August and September 1978, nine species of earthworms belonging to six genera were collected from several localities in Imo and Anambra States of Nigeria. Seven of these species were recorded and the other two described as new species. Two new genera—Parapolytoreutus and Digitodrilus—were erected for the new species. To accommodate the former genus within the subfamily Eudrilinae, the previous diagnostic characteristic of ‘ventral, unpaired oesophageal sacs’ has to be amended as ‘ventral, paired or unpaired oesophageal sacs’. Both Agrotoreutus Segun 1976 and Parapolytoreutus have paired ventral sacs.     

Charles Immanuel Forsyth Major's expedition to Madagascar, 1894 to 1896: beginnings of modern systematic study of the island's mammalian fauna

Charles Immanuel Forsyth Major (1843–1923) made the first synoptic systematic collection of mammals from Madagascar in the last decade of the 19th century. To reconstruct Major's obscurely known itinerary, we located 994 specimens that originated from his 1894–1896 expedition and determined their identification, dates and locality of collection, and current institutional repository. Fifty species were recovered from 26 localities centred in the Central Highlands and Eastern Humid Forest of east‐central Madagascar. The geographic position of several type localities is refined and their coordinates estimated, and the type locality of one taxon (Microgale pusilla Major, 1896) is accordingly amended. Biographical details of the man, the biodiversity significance of his collections and the historical context of his discoveries are discussed.     

Insects and spiders on snowfields in the Cairngorms,Scotland

Summary

An account is given of seven collections of insects and spiders made in summer 1979 on snowfields above 1100m elevation in the Cairngorm mountains, Scotland. In one comprehensive collection 278 recently deposited animals representing 35 species were obtained in 25 m²; the other collections were selective. A high proportion of the roughly 700 specimens obtained have been identified. They represent at least 130 species, including 12 species of Araneae and 34 species each of Coleoptera, Hymenoptera and Diptera. Only 10 species are known to be restricted to ‘montane’ environments and it is concluded that the composition of fallout on mountain snowfields, both in Britain and elsewhere, reflects mainly the nature of the vegetation, and thus of the insect communities, in upwind areas at lower elevations. The discussion concerns the significance of fallout as a resource for high altitude communities and as a manifestation of long-distance migration and potential gene flow among populations of terrestrial arthropods.     

A behavioural inventory of adult Stenus species (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae)

According to focal animal sampling, the genus-specific behaviour of Stenus beetles (Coleoptera, Staphylinidae) can be presented in the form of a comprehensive ethogram including 73 distinct behavioural patterns. Most observed behavioural patterns can be assigned to five functional systems: ‘feeding’, ‘reproduction’, ‘grooming’, ‘resting’ and ‘protection’. In addition to grooming behaviour, searching behaviour takes a large amount of time (50–90% of the total observation time), which is indicative of the broad prey spectrum of Stenus species. The biological significance of selected behavioural aspects concerning ‘searching for prey’, ‘prey capture’, ‘mating’, ‘self-grooming’ and ‘locomotion on the water surface’ is addressed in the discussion.     

Anatomy,reach and classification of the parasitoid complex of a common British moth,Anthophila fabriciana (L.) (Choreutidae)

The small plurivoltine moth Anthophila fabriciana is widespread and often abundant in Britain wherever its main larval foodplant, stinging nettle, occurs. It overwinters as a larva (first generation) then has one or more partly overlapping summer broods (notionally second generation). A total of 5017 larvae were collected and reared from widely distributed populations in Britain, and the resulting 2167 host mortalities due to parasitoids were assessed. Small collections of pupae were also made. Altogether 25 parasitoid species, including secondary parasitoids, were found. Larval parasitism was heaviest in the second generation. In each generation there was a dominant parasitoid that was absent from the other. Summary information on the developmental biology and host range (expressed quantitatively and resulting from very broad rearing programmes) for each parasitoid is given. They are classed as ‘absolute specialists’, ‘taxon oligospecialists’, ‘niche oligospecialists’, ‘niche generalists’, ‘casuals’ and ‘strays’. Both kinds of oligospecialists can be ‘paraspecialists’ if only one potential host occurs locally. Although constructing a quantitative food web is not appropriate, providing both source web and sink web data in quantitative form enables the parasitoid complex to be understood in the wider context of the ecosystem, necessary for both biodiversity and nature conservation interests. In Appendix 1, parasitoids reared from other European Choreutidae are listed quantitatively.     

Selection and habitat-specific allozyme variation in the self-fertilizing land snail Cochlicopa lubrica (O. F. Müller)

Allozyme variation of aspartate-aminotransferase locus Aat 1 is analysed in the land snail Cochlicopa lubrica (O. F. Müller, 1774). Two alleles, denoted ‘20’ and ‘80’, have been found in 29 Central European populations investigated. This species reproduces under a high rate of self-fertilization. Only three out of 787 individuals were heterozygous (enzyme pattern Aat 1 ‘20’/‘80’). The homozygous individuals with Aat 1 ‘80’ were frequent in moist and shady habitats. In exposed and open habitats, however, the homozygous individuals with Aat 1 ‘20’ occurred frequently. These results give strong evidence for habitat-specific selection inferred from allozyme variation. Moreover, a tight interlocus correlation of isocitrate-dehydrogenase patterns (Idh 1) and Aat 1 patterns has been observed. Two groups of homozygous genotypes are commonly found: (1) the group Idh 1 ‘145’/Aat 1 ‘80’, and (2) the group Idh 1 ‘155’/Aat 1 ‘20’. The Aat data for Cochlicopa lubrica are complemented by morphometric measurements of the shells. The homozygous types of Aat 1 ‘20’ (common in exposed/open habitats) possessed, on average, slightly smaller shells than the homozygous types with Aat 1 ‘80’ (common in moist/shady habitats). This slight mean difference in shell size might be due to the living conditions in the habitats. In the last part of the study, the allozyme variation of snails was assessed for spatial selection processes, and a compilation of the available papers is shown.     

Digging with ‘hands’: observations of food capture in the flying gurnard Dactylopterus volitans (Linnaeus, 1758)

ABSTRACT

Videofilms of a foraging flying gurnard (Dactylopterus volitans) were collected at Itaipu, Niterói, RJ, Brazil. Analysis revealed details of the use of anterior parts of the pectoral fins which act as digging ‘hands’ to access infaunal prey items that are subsequently captured by oral suction feeding. Each pectoral fin has two distinct sections articulated separately on the pectoral girdle. The digging ‘anterior pectoral fin’ mainly consists of segmented and flexible fin rays but has an anterior robust unsegmented ray that provides an edge to the ‘hand’, allowing penetration of the substratum. The huge ‘posterior pectoral fins’ are supported by unsegmented rays. Most digging episodes involved one ‘hand’ and consisted of 1–7 cycles of movement with frequencies 1.15–3.74 cycles s^?1. During a cycle, the ‘hand’ is moved forwards and medially above the substratum, then is twisted medially and simultaneously depressed so that the anterior unsegmented ray impacts and enters the substratum. The hand is then drawn backwards and laterally to disturb the substratum. To prevent upward pitching of the head during digging, the ‘posterior pectoral fins’ are both moved anteriorly and laterally to shift the centre of gravity forwards while the caudal and ?second dorsal fins continue to provide propulsive force.     

When did Darwin ‘clearly conceive’ his theory of evolution?

Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection as espoused in his classic book, On the Origin of Species, constitutes one of the most important scientific advances of the last millennium. In his autobiography, Darwin apparently claimed to have ‘clearly conceived’ the theory in 1839, but the Origin was not published until 1859, following a brief excerpt of his theorizing published in mid-1858. Much scholarship has been devoted to explaining this apparent gap. Yet, examination of Darwin’s explicit theorizing fails to support the generally accepted ‘clear conception’ by 1839 as an accurate reference to an immature version of the Origin theory, a theory of continuous and universal organic change. However, by articulating both broad and narrow versions of the theory, as well as considering the inevitable theory development over decades, Darwin’s ‘clear conception’ is explained in relation to two distinct broad theories and the enduring core element, the mechanism of natural selection. This explanation casts the famous ‘gap’ in an entirely new light.     

Rare fishes from the Clyde sea area

Summary

The swarming flights of 23 species of termite were observed at three localities within Brazil and data collected on the periodicity of swarms, the predators which attach the exposed termites and the defensive behaviour of the three castes of termites.

The principal predators on termites during swarming were ants at ground level and birds in the air. The defensive behaviour of workers and soldiers effectively protected the termite alates from terrestrial predators, but only the low level of light at dawn and dusk protected them from aerial predators.

Most of the termites released their alates at the beginning of the rainy season, either at dawn or at dusk and protected them from grounded predators with a ‘blanket’ cordon of workers and soldiers.

Three species of the subterranean, soldierless Anoplotermes constructed special launching towers for the release of alates and protected them from predation with these structures. Armitermes euamignathus and Cornitermes cumulans also built launching structures on their nests for alates, but showed the ‘blanket’ behaviour of most termitids in their defence.

The towers constructed by the three species of Anoplotermes indicated, by their distribution and number, the density and approximate size of the subterranean colonies which built them. A mean density of 240 nests ha^-1 and 258·24 termites m^-2 was estimated for Anoplotermes sp I.     

Anurans of Turvo State Park: testing the validity of Seasonal Forest as a new biome in Brazil

The composition of the anuran community of Turvo State Park was compared with that of other localities of Mesophytic semideciduous Forest, aiming to test the hypothesis that localities situated nearest the Misiones nucleus support the new phytogeographic unit, known as Tropical Seasonal Forests Region. In total 32 amphibian species were recorded in the park area and surroundings: Anura, 30 native species and one exotic; Gymnophiona, one species. The ordination among the 20 localities of Seasonal Forest showed the formation of three groups with 45% similarity: group 1, composed of localities of south-eastern and central western regions; group 2, composed of the localities of the transitional portion with the Atlantic Forest sensu stricto and group 3, composed of the southern localities. The consolidation of the second group, which includes the occurrence of endemic species, supports the proposal of a new phytogeographic unit.     

Functional anatomy of male antennal glands in three species of Encyrtidae (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea)

The occurrence of male antennal glands in three hymenopteran parasitoids belonging to the family Encyrtidae (Leptomastix dactylopii, Rhopus meridionalis and Asitus phragmitis) is reported for the first time. The ultrastructure and function of these glands are described in detail. In all three species the glands consist of clustered unicellular secretory units extending underneath the cuticle. Glandular secretions were released externally and spread onto female antennae by specialized ‘release and spread sites’, appearing as ‘scale-like’ or ‘peg-like’ cuticular structures. These antennal glands play an important role during the complex sequences of courtship behaviour, eliciting female acceptance. The possible behavioural and taxonomical implications are discussed.     

Little-known and phylogenetically obscure South African estuarine microgastropods (Mollusca: Truncatelloidea) as living animals

Areas of the Knysna estuarine bay in the Western Cape are dominated by three endemic South African truncatelloid microgastropods, temporarily known as ‘Hydrobia’ knysnaensis (Krauss), ‘Assiminea’ capensis (Sowerby) and ‘Assiminea’ globulus Connolly. Although first described 80–170 years ago and present in abundance (up to 100,000 m^?2), they remain surrounded by confusion and still await taxonomic assignment, largely because they appear most atypical members of their groups by virtue of anatomy and/or biogeography and/or habitat. This study contributes in-life perspectives to morphological and phylogenetic analyses known to be on-going. At Knysna, they are syntopic: at least two occurring in >85% and all three in >40% of individual 0.0026 m² samples from their region of dominance. Nevertheless, they tend to greater abundance in divergent microhabitats; ‘A.’ globulus dominating higher tidal levels, and ‘A.’ capensis and ‘Hydrobia’ lower ones; the former especially unvegetated sediment, the latter, if anything, seagrass. Interspecific feeding interactions appear unlikely to be responsible for these patterns, other evidence suggesting that all are maintained below carrying capacity. Field biology of ‘H.’ knysnaensis generally appears equivalent to that of northern-hemisphere intertidal hydrobiids and that of ‘A.’ globulus is typically assimineid, albeit at atypically low shore height. Unlike assimineids, however, ‘A.’ capensis is truly aquatic. The success of these truncatelloids in unusual circumstances may be consequent on the absence from South Africa of other microgastropod groups that fill their niches elsewhere in the southern hemisphere.     

Morphologische Indizien für das unmittelbare Schwestergruppenverhältnis der Schizophora mit den Syrphoidea (‘Aschiza’) in der phylogenetischen Systematik der Cyclorrhapha (Diptera: Brachycera)

The phylogenetic relationships of the Schizophora with the families of the Aschiza were investigated on the basis of synapomorphies. Depending on the family, the sensory epithelium of the retinae of the compound eyes of flies consists either of populations of two ommatidial elements or of uniform ommatidia: duotype and monotype respectively. Within the Cyclorrhapha, the monotype occurs exclusively in the Schizophora and Syrphoidea (= Syrphidae + Pipunculidae), whereas the duotype occurs in the remaining Aschiza. These two types form a plesio-apomorphous pair: on the basis of character state analysis the duotype was regarded as plesiomorphous and the monotype proved to be a synapomorphy of the Schizophora and Syrphoidea. The retinal pair was accorded a high relevance as an indicator of the phylogenetic relationships in Cyclorrhapha owing to its special morphology and the very low probability of a parallel development of the apomorphous monotype.

In this paper the hypothesis (Hennig, 1976) that the dorsobasal arista on the antennal flagellum in the Schizophora and Syrphoidea is a synapomorphy compared to the original apical arista was confirmed on the basis of literature studies.

The monophyly of these two groups together, and their sister group relationship, were demonstrated in an argumentation scheme. Three alterations of the conventional systematics of the Cyclorrhapha were undertaken: (a) the term ‘Eumuscomorpha’ was introduced to designate a new monophyletic taxon of the Schizophora and Syrphoidea. (b) The remaining groups of the Aschiza were temporarily subsumed in a ‘superfamily Platypezoidea’ owing to their manifestation of complementary symplesiomorphous characteristics. Until its phylogenetic character (monophyly or paraphyly) is unequivocally clarified, it remains an ‘artifical’ entity. (c) The term ‘Aschiza’ is for a taxon of the genealogical system no longer applicable.     

Redescription of Retilaskeya horrida (di Monterosato, 1874) comb. nov. and a re-evaluation of the taxonomic affinity of the genus Retilaskeya (Caenogastropoda: Triphoroidea)

The family Cerithiopsidae H. Adams and A. Adams, 1853 is distributed worldwide, and comprises around 800 extant species divided into ~40 genera. The most speciose genus within the family is Cerithiopsis Forbes and Hanley, 1850, a taxon currently used as a general receptacle rather than as a proper phylogenetic lineage. We hereby redescribe the rare species Cerithiopsis horrida di Monterosato, 1874, review its nomenclature, known material, and distribution as well as figure the entire protoconch, operculum, and radula for the first time. Our results highlight extreme differences between ‘Cerithiopsis’ horrida and the Cerithiopsis type species Cerithiopsis tubercularis (Montagu, 1803) and strong morphological and radular similarities with species belonging to the genus Retilaskeya Marshall, 1978. A wide discussion lists several taxa that might be ascribed to the same group of species, which presumably constitute a different worldwide lineage. Pending relevant molecular phylogenetic studies of the Triphoroidea Gray, 1847, for morphological conformity we suggest transferring ‘Cerithiopsis’ horrida to the genus Retilaskeya, and the same action is presumably appropriate for its possible sister species ‘Cerithiopsis’ leopardus Rolán and Gori, 2013. Finally, Retilaskeya better conforms to Newtoniellidae Korobkov, 1955 than Cerithiopsidae.     

Barn Owl (Tyto alba) prey in Evros (Greece) and the discovery of a new mammal for the Greek fauna

ABSTRACT

Small mammals are key elements of terrestrial ecosystems, yet in south-eastern Europe many questions about their taxonomy and distribution remain unanswered. This is particularly true for the small mammal fauna of Greece. We investigated the distribution of small mammals in the district of Evros (NE Greece) through Tyto alba pellet analysis and live-trapping in 19 localities (29 samplings). We collected remains from a total 2434 individual vertebrates through pellet analyses and captured 110 small mammals through live trapping. We provide data on the distribution and community composition in the corresponding localities, for 17 small mammal species (11 rodents and 6 insectivores). Our findings include the first record of Myomimus roachi in Greece, a result facilitated by the yearly dynamics of Microtus sp. populations, as well as the first record of Sorex minutus in Evros. The Barn owl’s main prey (by percentage, allocated to genera) were Crocidura (29.7%) Mus (27%) Microtus (23.2%) and Apodemus (13%).