Assessment of Mars Exploration Rover landing site predictions

Comprehensive analyses of remote sensing data during the three-year effort to select the Mars Exploration Rover landing sites at Gusev crater and at Meridiani Planum correctly predicted the atmospheric density profile during entry and descent and the safe and trafficable surfaces explored by the two rovers. The Gusev crater site was correctly predicted to be a low-relief surface that was less rocky than the Viking landing sites but comparably dusty. A dark, low-albedo, flat plain composed of basaltic sand and haematite with very few rocks was expected and found at Meridiani Planum. These results argue that future efforts to select safe landing sites based on existing and acquired remote sensing data will be successful. In contrast, geological interpretations of the sites based on remote sensing data were less certain and less successful, which emphasizes the inherent ambiguities in understanding surface geology from remotely sensed data and the uncertainty in predicting exactly what materials will be available for study at a landing site.     

A possible terrestrial analogue for haematite concretions on Mars

Recent exploration has revealed extensive geological evidence for a water-rich past in the shallow subsurface of Mars. Images of in situ and loose accumulations of abundant, haematite-rich spherical balls from the Mars Exploration Rover 'Opportunity' landing site at Meridiani Planum bear a striking resemblance to diagenetic (post-depositional), haematite-cemented concretions found in the Jurassic Navajo Sandstone of southern Utah. Here we compare the spherical concretions imaged on Mars to these terrestrial concretions, and investigate the implications for analogous groundwater-related formation mechanisms. The morphology, character and distribution of Navajo haematite concretions allow us to infer host-rock properties and fluid processes necessary for similar features to develop on Mars. We conclude that the formation of such spherical haematite concretions requires the presence of a permeable host rock, groundwater flow and a chemical reaction front.     

A volcanic environment for bedrock diagenesis at Meridiani Planum on Mars

Exposed bedrocks at Meridiani Planum on Mars display chemical and mineralogical evidence suggesting interaction with liquid water. On the basis of morphological observations as well as high abundances of haematite and sulphate minerals, the rocks have been interpreted as sediments that were deposited in a shallow body of briny water with subsequent evaporation leaving behind the sulphate minerals. The iron-sulphur mineralization at Meridiani has also been inferred to be analogous to that produced during oxidative weathering of metal sulphide minerals, such as occurs at acid mine drainage sites. Neither of these interpretations, however, is consistent with the chemical composition of the rocks. Here we propose an alternative model for diagenesis of Meridiani bedrock that involves deposition of volcanic ash followed by reaction with condensed sulphur dioxide- and water-bearing vapours emitted from fumaroles. This scenario does not require prolonged interaction with a standing body of surface water and may have occurred at high temperatures. Consequently, the model invokes an environment considerably less favourable for biological activity on Mars than previously proposed interpretations.     

Jarosite as an indicator of water-limited chemical weathering on Mars

The Mars Exploration Rover Opportunity identified the ferric sulphate mineral jarosite and possible relicts of gypsum at the Meridiani Planum landing site. On Earth, jarosite has been found to form in acid mine drainage environments, during the oxidation of sulphide minerals, and during alteration of volcanic rocks by acidic, sulphur-rich fluids near volcanic vents. Jarosite formation is thus thought to require a wet, oxidizing and acidic environment. But jarosite on Earth only persists over geologically relevant time periods in arid environments because it rapidly decomposes to produce ferric oxyhydroxides in more humid climates. Here we present equilibrium thermodynamic reaction-path simulations that constrain the range of possible conditions under which such aqueous alteration phases are likely to have formed on Mars. These calculations simulate the chemical weathering of basalt at relevant martian conditions. We conclude that the presence of jarosite combined with residual basalt at Meridiani Planum indicates that the alteration process did not proceed to completion, and that following jarosite formation, arid conditions must have prevailed.     

Water alteration of rocks and soils on Mars at the Spirit rover site in Gusev crater

Gusev crater was selected as the landing site for the Spirit rover because of the possibility that it once held a lake. Thus one of the rover's tasks was to search for evidence of lake sediments. However, the plains at the landing site were found to be covered by a regolith composed of olivine-rich basaltic rock and windblown 'global' dust. The analyses of three rock interiors exposed by the rock abrasion tool showed that they are similar to one another, consistent with having originated from a common lava flow. Here we report the investigation of soils, rock coatings and rock interiors by the Spirit rover from sol (martian day) 1 to sol 156, from its landing site to the base of the Columbia hills. The physical and chemical characteristics of the materials analysed provide evidence for limited but unequivocal interaction between water and the volcanic rocks of the Gusev plains. This evidence includes the softness of rock interiors that contain anomalously high concentrations of sulphur, chlorine and bromine relative to terrestrial basalts and martian meteorites; sulphur, chlorine and ferric iron enrichments in multilayer coatings on the light-toned rock Mazatzal; high bromine concentration in filled vugs and veins within the plains basalts; positive correlations between magnesium, sulphur and other salt components in trench soils; and decoupling of sulphur, chlorine and bromine concentrations in trench soils compared to Gusev surface soils, indicating chemical mobility and separation.     

Planetary science: bedrock formation at Meridiani Planum

The Mars Exploration Rover Opportunity discovered sulphate-rich sedimentary rocks at Meridiani Planum on Mars, which are interpreted by McCollom and Hynek as altered volcanic rocks. However, their conclusions are derived from an incorrect representation of our depositional model, which is upheld by more recent Rover data. We contend that all the available data still support an aeolian and aqueous sedimentary origin for Meridiani bedrock.     

Phyllosilicates on Mars and implications for early martian climate

The recent identification of large deposits of sulphates by remote sensing and in situ observations has been considered evidence of the past presence of liquid water on Mars. Here we report the unambiguous detection of diverse phyllosilicates, a family of aqueous alteration products, on the basis of observations by the OMEGA imaging spectrometer on board the Mars Express spacecraft. These minerals are mainly associated with Noachian outcrops, which is consistent with an early active hydrological system, sustaining the long-term contact of igneous minerals with liquid water. We infer that the two main families of hydrated alteration products detected-phyllosilicates and sulphates--result from different formation processes. These occurred during two distinct climatic episodes: an early Noachian Mars, resulting in the formation of hydrated silicates, followed by a more acidic environment, in which sulphates formed.     

Meridiani Planum and the global hydrology of Mars

The Opportunity Mars Exploration Rover found evidence for groundwater activity in the Meridiani Planum region of Mars in the form of aeolian and fluvial sediments composed of sulphate-rich grains. These sediments appear to have experienced diagenetic modification in the presence of a fluctuating water table. In addition to the extensive secondary aqueous alteration, the primary grains themselves probably derive from earlier playa evaporites. Little is known, however, about the hydrologic processes responsible for this environmental history-particularly how such extensive evaporite deposits formed in the absence of a topographic basin. Here we investigate the origin of these deposits, in the context of the global hydrology of early Mars, using numerical simulations, and demonstrate that Meridiani is one of the few regions of currently exposed ancient crust predicted to have experienced significant groundwater upwelling and evaporation. The global groundwater flow would have been driven primarily by precipitation-induced recharge and evaporative loss, with the formation of the Tharsis volcanic rise possibly playing a role through the burial of aquifers and induced global deformation. These results suggest that the deposits formed as a result of sustained groundwater upwelling and evaporation, rather than ponding within an enclosed basin. The evaporite formation coincided with a transition to more arid conditions that increased the relative impact of a deep-seated, global-scale hydrology on the surface evolution.     

Interferometric radar measurements of water level changes on the Amazon flood plain

Measurements of water levels in the main channels of rivers, upland tributaries and floodplain lakes are necessary for understanding flooding hazards, methane production, sediment transport and nutrient exchange. But most remote river basins have only a few gauging stations and these tend to be restricted to large river channels. Although radar remote sensing techniques using interferometric phase measurements have the potential to greatly improve spatial sampling, the phase is temporally incoherent over open water and has therefore not been used to determine water levels. Here we use interferometric synthetic aperture radar (SAR) data, acquired over the central Amazon by the Space Shuttle imaging radar mission, to measure subtle water level changes in an area of flooded vegetation on the Amazon flood plain. The technique makes use of the fact that flooded forests and floodplain lakes with emergent shrubs permit radar double-bounce returns from water and vegetation surfaces, thus allowing coherence to be maintained. Our interferometric phase observations show decreases in water levels of 7-11 cm per day for tributaries and lakes within approximately 20 km of a main channel and 2-5 cm per day at distances of approximately 80 km. Proximal floodplain observations are in close agreement with main-channel gauge records, indicating a rapid response of the flood plain to decreases in river stage. With additional data from future satellite missions, the technique described here should provide direct observations important for understanding flood dynamics and hydrologic exchange between rivers and flood plains.     

火星盐类研究进展

 因携带水相关地质过程及环境的丰富信息,进而与生命起源密切相关,行星盐类研究受到大量科研工作者的关注。好奇号登陆之后,火星盐类研究取得了一些新进展。例如,在着陆区泥岩中发现了黄钾铁矾;在泥岩及泥岩砂岩的不整合接触面发现了石膏脉;在风沉积及原位沉积岩中发现了硝酸盐。此外,通过遥感手段,还发现火星新出现的斜坡沟渠可能是由含高氯酸盐高浓卤水冲击形成的。这些新进展再次表明了盐类对于火星科学的重要性。结合已有研究,凝练了火星盐类研究存在的重要科学问题,展望了中国未来火星探测研究。     

Geology and insolation-driven climatic history of Amazonian north polar materials on Mars

Mariner 9 and Viking spacecraft images revealed that the polar regions of Mars, like those of Earth, record the planet's climate history. However, fundamental uncertainties regarding the materials, features, ages and processes constituting the geologic record remained. Recently acquired Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter data and Mars Orbiter Camera high-resolution images from the Mars Global Surveyor spacecraft and moderately high-resolution Thermal Emission Imaging System visible images from the Mars Odyssey spacecraft permit more comprehensive geologic and climatic analyses. Here I map and show the history of geologic materials and features in the north polar region that span the Amazonian period (approximately 3.0 Gyr ago to present). Erosion and redeposition of putative circumpolar mud volcano deposits (formed by eruption of liquefied, fine-grained material) led to the formation of an Early Amazonian polar plateau consisting of dark layered materials. Crater ejecta superposed on pedestals indicate that a thin mantle was present during most of the Amazonian, suggesting generally higher obliquity and insolation conditions at the poles than at present. Brighter polar layered deposits rest unconformably on the dark layers and formed mainly during lower obliquity over the past 4-5 Myr (ref. 20). Finally, the uppermost layers post-date the latest downtrend in obliquity <20,000 years ago.     

基于DEM与遥感信息的秦淮河流域数字水系提取方法

利用数字高程模型DEM提取流域数字水系的方法存在精度差、提取出的流域水系与平坦地区和山区流域实际情况差别较大等缺陷.为了克服这一流域数字水系提取方法所存在的缺陷,引入了利用遥感信息来弥补DEM缺陷的方法;提出了一种利用遥感影像提取流域水系信息,采用基于数字河流和湖泊网络(DRLN)的水流方向修正法修正DEM中平坦地区主干河流及湖泊地区栅格的水流方向的流域数字水系提取方法,并以秦淮河流域数字水系提取为例对该方法进行了实验.实验结果表明,该方法能消除大量的平行河道,修正与实际偏差较大的主干河流,在平坦地区和山区均能提取出较符合实际情况的数字流域水系.     

太湖二类水体水色遥感的大气校正问题探讨

基于简化的大气辐射传输模型,提出一种基于图像本身的水色遥感大气校正方法。根据清洁水体在绿光波段的离水辐射相对稳定的特点,来估算清洁水体像元在绿光波段的气溶胶参数,插值获取整幅图像在绿光波段的气溶胶参数,根据大气校正因子为1的假设,外推获取蓝、红波段的气溶胶参数。以太湖为研究区,对Landsat5TM蓝、绿、红波段进行大气校正,反演出离水辐亮度,进而获得水体的遥感反射率。对反演的水体遥感反射率与准同步实测的相应采样点水体遥感反射率进行了对比分析,结果表明,该方法有效地去除了大气效应对遥感数据的影响,经过大气校正的反射率值接近实测反射率值。     

珠江口水域水污染遥感定量分析

卫星遥感技术在水污染监测方面具有广阔的应用前景。在经大气校正后 ,可见光波段卫星遥感数据的水体象元主要受水中污染物、泥沙及叶绿素等的影响。研究污染水体反射光谱成像的物理过程 ,在水深较大(>2m)的假设下 ,建立了叶绿不敏感波段遥感数据象元反射率与污染物浓度的函数关系 ,并用多波段数据进行求解。然后采用 2 0 0 2年TM卫星数据 ,用该方法对珠江口海域的综合汛浓度进行了定量提取并用实测数据加以验证。结果显示 ,珠江口水域重污染区主要分布在伶仃洋东北部 ,香港维多利亚港和深圳湾。     

基于TM影像的长江口悬沙浓度遥感反演定量模式研究

近年来,由于水利工程等因素,长江入海径流量变化较大并导致入海泥沙量明显呈下降趋势,必会影响海岸带环境．利用遥感技术研究泥沙含量不仅速度快,效率高,周期短,而且对分析河口海岸带冲淤变化,研究流域入海物质通量、物质循环、河口沙洲变化,港口建设,航道治理以及海岸带环境管理都有十分重要韵意义．利用长江口TM影像数据以及现场采集的多个长江口表层悬沙浓度数据,建立悬沙浓度遥感定量反演模式．通过对遥感数据预处理,运用不同的悬沙反演模式进行回93分析,得到低浓度悬沙水体运用多项武模式反演效果较好,高浓度表层悬沙水体运用乘幂模式反演效果较好,同时应用Arcgis软件绘制成悬浮泥沙空间分布图,并归纳出长江口悬沙分布和输移的基本规律．     

基于烃微渗漏的航空高光谱遥感蚀变信息提取

随着遥感技术的发展,运用烃类微渗漏遥感探测进行直接找油成为油气勘探的发展趋势。国内外众多学者的研究表明,烃类微渗漏会造成岩石、土壤和植被的异常并在遥感影像上得到表现。基于油气烃微渗漏理论,研究了土壤吸附烃、黏土矿物、碳酸盐矿物和二三价铁离子作为识别油气信息的光谱特征,通过对吉木萨尔地区SASI与CASI航空高光谱遥感数据进行处理与分析,使用混合协调匹配滤波(MTMF)方法完成了矿物蚀变填图,提取到研究区烃类微渗漏异常信息,为下一步的野外实地勘探提供了有效资料。     

Aeolian processes at the Mars Exploration Rover Meridiani Planum landing site

The martian surface is a natural laboratory for testing our understanding of the physics of aeolian (wind-related) processes in an environment different from that of Earth. Martian surface markings and atmospheric opacity are time-variable, indicating that fine particles at the surface are mobilized regularly by wind. Regolith (unconsolidated surface material) at the Mars Exploration Rover Opportunity's landing site has been affected greatly by wind, which has created and reoriented bedforms, sorted grains, and eroded bedrock. Aeolian features here preserve a unique record of changing wind direction and wind strength. Here we present an in situ examination of a martian bright wind streak, which provides evidence consistent with a previously proposed formational model for such features. We also show that a widely used criterion for distinguishing between aeolian saltation- and suspension-dominated grain behaviour is different on Mars, and that estimated wind friction speeds between 2 and 3 m s(-1), most recently from the northwest, are associated with recent global dust storms, providing ground truth for climate model predictions.     

基于多光谱遥感的水质监测处理方法与分析

基于定量遥感理论和方法，将多光谱遥感数据和实测水质数据相结合，研究了水生态环境的空间分布，并对其进行了分析和评价．探讨了多光谱水遥感图像的处理方法和水质参数的数学回归模型，并以太湖水域的悬浮物含量为例，进行了回归分析．结果表明，采用遥感手段对水质进行监测是可行和正确的，由遥感数据得到的太湖水域悬浮物含量的空间分布也与太湖水域的实际情况相符．     

利用卫星遥感大气气溶胶进行待建环境监测站点位评估

利用MTSAT-1R卫星资料中的红外1、红外2和水汽通道亮温数据, 在目标云块识别对比的基础上计算对流初生(CI)预报的8个指标值。根据京津地区的实际情况, 给出修正后的预报指标阈值, 并对2006-2007年京津地区进行17日次对流初生预报实验。实验结果表明, 该预报方法能够对1小时内的对流初生现象进行有效预报。结合云导风矢量给出检验预报结果的方法, 对该预报方法的预报效果进行量化统计。统计结果表明, 该方法预报对流初生的TS (threat score) 评分为0.545, 检测概率(POD)为0.654, 空报率(FAR)为0.435。     

星地结合的细颗粒物超标防控区精确识别方法

为精确识别细颗粒物(PM_(2. 5))浓度超标的区域空间,依据卫星遥感与站点监测在PM_(2. 5)浓度观测方面的特点,建立遥感反演数据与站点监测数据间的临界映射分析法,综合卫星遥感覆盖面广和站点监测准确性高的技术优势。通过该方法研究珠三角区域2013年灰霾污染过程的PM_(2. 5)浓度超标区域,结果表明,利用星地结合的方法可以精确识别出PM_(2. 5)浓度超标的区域空间;广州市西部和南部、佛山市大部、肇庆市主城区及东南部、东莞市西部和北部、中山市北部和中部、江门市主城区及东部是珠三角PM_(2. 5)污染的高发地区,应作为防控重点。