A mechanism to thin the continental lithosphere at magma-poor margins

Where continental plates break apart, slip along multiple normal faults provides the required space for the Earth's crust to thin and subside. After initial rifting, however, the displacement on normal faults observed at the sea floor seems not to match the inferred extension. Here we show that crustal thinning can be accomplished in such extensional environments by a system of conjugate concave downward faults instead of multiple normal faults. Our model predicts that these concave faults accumulate large amounts of extension and form a very thin crust (< 10 km) by exhumation of mid-crustal and mantle material. This transitional crust is capped by sub-horizontal detachment surfaces over distances exceeding 100 km with little visible deformation. Our rift model is based on numerical experiments constrained by geological and geophysical observations from the Alpine Tethys and Iberia/Newfoundland margins. Furthermore, we suggest that the observed transition from broadly distributed and symmetric extension to localized and asymmetric rifting is directly controlled by the existence of a strong gabbroic lower crust. The presence of such lower crustal gabbros is well constrained for the Alpine Tethys system. Initial decoupling of upper crustal deformation from lower crustal and mantle deformation by progressive weakening of the middle crust is an essential requirement to reproduce the observed rift evolution. This is achieved in our models by the formation of weak ductile shear zones.     

Evolution of magma-poor continental margins from rifting to seafloor spreading

The rifting of continents involves faulting (tectonism) and magmatism, which reflect the strain-rate and temperature dependent processes of solid-state deformation and decompression melting within the Earth. Most models of this rifting have treated tectonism and magmatism separately, and few numerical simulations have attempted to include continental break-up and melting, let alone describe how continental rifting evolves into seafloor spreading. Models of this evolution conventionally juxtapose continental and oceanic crust. Here we present observations that support the existence of a zone of exhumed continental mantle, several tens of kilometres wide, between oceanic and continental crust on continental margins where magma-poor rifting has taken place. We present geophysical and geological observations from the west Iberia margin, and geological mapping of margins of the former Tethys ocean now exposed in the Alps. We use these complementary findings to propose a conceptual model that focuses on the final stage of continental extension and break-up, and the creation of a zone of exhumed continental mantle that evolves oceanward into seafloor spreading. We conclude that the evolving stress and thermal fields are constrained by a rising and narrowing ridge of asthenospheric mantle, and that magmatism and rates of extension systematically increase oceanward.     

东、西非大陆边缘比较及其油气意义

通过比较,分析了东、西非大陆边缘在形成时间、形成方式和边缘结构等方面存在的差异,并对东、西非边缘的油气成藏条件进行了探讨.东非边缘的裂谷作用时间早,且结束时间也早;形成了以右行剪切边缘、左行剪切边缘及它们之间的斜向剪切为特点的大陆边缘形式.东非边缘也具有陆架窄、陆坡较陡,沿大型海洋转换断层形成了一系列地形高的特点,对沉积物延伸具有明显的限制作用.而西非被动大陆边缘的裂谷作用开始时间较晚,海底扩张开始的时间亦较晚;边缘为拉分型,具有陆架宽、倾角缓的特点,发育了与油气关系密切的厚层蒸发岩及相应的盐构造,形成了大量盐构造及泥底辟,有利于油气聚集,并形成了很多大型油气圈闭.     

Formation and evolution of Precambrian continental crust in South China

The occurrence of zircons with U-Pb ages of ~3.8 Ga and Hf model ages of ~4.0 Ga in South China suggests the existence of the Hadean crustal remnants in South China. Furthermore, a detrital zircon with a U-Pb age as old as 4.1 Ga has been found in Tibet. This is the oldest zircon so far reported in China. These results imply that continental crust was more widespread than previously thought in the late Hadean, but its majority was efficiently reworked into Archean continental crust. On the basis of available zircon U-Pb age and Hf isotope data, it appears that the growth of continental crust in South China started since the early Archean, but a stable cratonic block through reworking did not occur until the Paleoproterozoic. Thus the operation of some form of plate tectonics may occur in China conti- nents since Eoarchean. The initial destruction of the South China craton was caused by intensive magmatic activity in association with the assembly and breakup of the supercontinent Rodinia during the Neoproterozoic. However, most of the Archean and Paleoproterozoic crustal materials in South China do not occur as surface rocks, but exist as sporadic crustal remnants. Nevertheless, the occur- rence of Neoproterozoic magmatism is still a signature to distinguish South China from North China.     

The deep thermal characteristic of continental margin of the northern South China Sea

Heat flow plays an important role in the study of thermal structure and thermal evolution of continental margin of the northern South China Sea. The analysis of heat flow value shows that margin heat flow in the northern South China Sea is relatively high setting, but the percentage of crustal heat flow is lower than 35% in terrestrial heat flow. The terrestrial heat flow exhibited a current of rise from the Northern Continental Margin to the Southern Central Basin. However, the proportion of crustal heat flow in terrestrial heat flow slowly dropped down in the same direction. It is suggested that the main factor causing high heat flow setting is the moving up of hot material from asthenosphere.     

澳洲西北及南部被动陆缘油气差异分布

澳洲西北陆架和南部被动陆缘盆地群是澳大利亚主要的油气富集区带,西北陆架与南部陆缘2个地区在构造演化背景、裂谷发育期次、发育时间、油气分布特征等方面存在异同之处.从构造演化对盆地结构的控制、区域构造对烃源岩分布的控制和断裂系统对成藏区带的控制3个方面分析两者的差异.研究结果表明:(1)西北陆架多期裂陷,盆地结构复杂,表现出“上油下气”的垂向分层式结构,各盆地内裂陷期的构造活动强弱与发育期次不同造成了整个西北陆架平面上油气分布的不均匀性,南部被动陆缘构造活动简单,裂陷期发育晚,时间短,均为单一的产油型盆地:(2)区域构造控制生烃中心的分布,西北陆架盆地烃源岩在整个中生代部有发育,南部地区晚白垩世和新生代发育烃源岩:(3)断裂系统的差异导致2个地区圈闭类型的差异,西北陆架早期圈闭受破坏,以断块性圈闭成藏为主,南部多为背斜圈闭和掀斜断块圈闭.澳洲2个地区的被动大陆边缘发育特点与中国南海北部准被动陆缘具有相似性,因此,这2个地区的油气分布特点对南海北部陆架有重要的参考意义.     

Water in granulites: implications for the nature and evolution of the lower continental crust

The lower continental crust is one of the most important sphere-layers in the deep earth, and is the direct place where the crust-mantle interactions occur. Granulites are the dominated rocks in the lower crust, and have critical implications for the knowledge of the composition, nature and evolution of the deep crust; fluids are important mediums influencing many geochemical, geophysical and geodynamical characteristics of the lower crust, and may also play a fundamental role in the petrogenesis of granulites and the formation of the lower crusts. In this paper, we review recent advances involved with the deep continental crust, granulites and fluids, and some long-standing debates. Combined with the Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis performed on the mineral assemblages (cpx, opx, plag and grt) in lower crustal granulite xenoliths and terrains (exposed section) from east China, it is suggested that structural water, dominated by OH, in these nominally anhydrous phases may constitute the most important water reservoir in the deep crust. This structual water may help to understand many lower crustal geological processes and phenomena (e.g. seismic activities and electrical conductive anomalies), and influences from these water must be taken into consideration.     

Water in granulites: implications for the nature and evolution of the lower continental crust

The tower continental crust is one of the most important sphere-layers in the deep earth, and is the direct place where the crust-mantle interactions occur. Granulttes are the dominated rocks in the lower crust, and have critical implications for the knowledge of the composition, nature and evolution of the deep crust; fluids are important mediums influencing many geochemical, geophysical and geodynamical characteristics of the lower crust, and may also play a fundamental role in the petrogenesis of granulites and the formation of the lower crusts. In this paper, we review recent advances involved with the deep continental crust, granulites and fluids, and some longstanding debates. Combined with the Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis performed on the mineral assemblages (cpx, opx, plag and grt) in lower crustal granulite xenoliths and terrains (exposed section) from east China, it is suggested that structural water, dominated by OH, in these nominally anhydrous phases may constitute the most important water reservoir in the deep crust. This structual water may help to understand many lower crustal geological processes and phenomena (e.g. seismic activities and electrical conductive anomalies), and influences from these water must be taken into consideration.     

Laboratory models of the thermal evolution of the mantle during rollback subduction

The subduction of oceanic lithosphere plays a key role in plate tectonics, the thermal evolution of the mantle and recycling processes between Earth's interior and surface. Information on mantle flow, thermal conditions and chemical transport in subduction zones come from the geochemistry of arc volcanoes, seismic images and geodynamic models. The majority of this work considers subduction as a two-dimensional process, assuming limited variability in the direction parallel to the trench. In contrast, observationally based models increasingly appeal to three-dimensional flow associated with trench migration and the sinking of oceanic plates with a translational component of motion (rollback). Here we report results from laboratory experiments that reveal fundamental differences in three-dimensional mantle circulation and temperature structure in response to subduction with and without a rollback component. Without rollback motion, flow in the mantle wedge is sluggish, there is no mass flux around the plate and plate edges heat up faster than plate centres. In contrast, during rollback subduction flow is driven around and beneath the sinking plate, velocities increase within the mantle wedge and are focused towards the centre of the plate, and the surface of the plate heats more along the centreline.     

Microstructural evolution and thermal conductivity of diamond/Al composites during thermal cycling

The microstructural evolution and performance of diamond/Al composites during thermal cycling has rarely been investigated. In the present work, the thermal stability of diamond/Al composites during thermal cycling for up to 200 cycles was explored. Specifically, the thermal conductivity(λ) of the composites was measured and scanning electron microscopy of specific areas in the same samples was carried out to achieve quasi-in situ observations. The interface between the(100) plane of diamond and the Al matrix was well bonded with a zigzag morphology and abundant needle-like Al_4C_3 phases. By contrast, the interface between the(111) plane of diamond and the Al matrix showed weak bonding and debonded during thermal cycling. The debonding length increased rapidly over the first 100 thermal cycles and then increased slowly in the following 100 cycles. The λ of the diamond/Al composites decreased abruptly over the initial 20 cycles, increased afterward, and then decreased monotonously once more with increasing number of thermal cycles. Decreases in the λ of the Al matrix and the corresponding stress concentration at the diamond/Al interface caused by thermal mismatch, rather than interfacial debonding, may be the main factors influencing the decrease in λ of the diamond/Al composites, especially in the initial stages of thermal cycling.     

煤中自由基热演化的模拟实验研究

有机质自由基的演化与温度有密切关系,因而可以作为古温标用于沉积盆地的热历史研究.利用36组热模拟实验得到了煤中自由基浓度与其镜质体反射率之间的关系,模拟实验的温度范围为300～550℃,模拟时间为30～480min.实验结果表明,煤中的自由基浓度随煤阶的增加而增大,大约在镜质体反射率为1.75%时达到最大值,随后自由基浓度开始下降.依据模拟实验得到的数据研究了煤中自由基浓度随时间和温度的变化关系,并建立了自由基浓度与时间—温度指数(TTI)的定量模式,该模式可以作为研究沉积盆地古地温的一种新方法.     

Multistage evolution of continental collision orogen: A case study for western Dabie orogen

The foramtion and evolution of collisional orogen is a prominent feature along convergent plate margins, and is generally a complex process. This article presents an integrated study of zircon genesis, U-Pb age and Lu-Hf isotope composition as well as geological characteristics for the western Dabie orogen to constrain its multi-stage evolution history. The results suggest that the formation of oceanic crust in the Huwan area was constrained at ca. 400--430 Ma, which was slightly later than the collision of the northern Qinling with the North China Block. It formed in a marginal basin in the northern margin of the Yangtze Block. The peak metamorphism of eclogite in the Huwan area occurred at ca. 310 Ma, and the timing of the initial exhumation of oceanic eclogite was about 270 Ma. The high to ultrahigh pressure （HP-UHP） metamorphic rocks in the Xinxian and the Hong＇an metamorphic zones have the same ages and natures as those of the HP-UHP metamorphic rocks in the other Dabie-Sulu terrains, and also have experienced multi-stage exhumation, and thus can be taken as a coherent part of the Dabie-Sulu orogen. Therefore, the Qinling-Dabie-Sulu orogen is a typical multi-stage continental collision orogen, with an amalgamation process extending more than 200 Ma.     

鄂尔多斯盆地延长组陆相页岩孔隙演化模式与影响因素

储层孔隙对页岩气赋存状态和流动机制具有关键控制作用。页岩孔隙演化模式研究能够深化页岩成储机理的认识,但目前相关研究仍然薄弱。以鄂尔多斯延长组陆相低熟页岩(镜质体反射率R_o=0.73%)为研究对象,开展热模拟实验,结合X射线衍射(X-ray diffraction, XRD)分析、低压氮气吸附、高压压汞(mercury intrusion capillary pressure, MICP)测试,分析不同成熟度页岩的孔隙特征,深入探讨陆相页岩孔隙演化模式及其影响因素。结果表明,随热演化程度升高,页岩孔隙经历先增加后减小的趋势,孔隙演化受控于有机质生烃、矿物转化和压实作用。有机质生烃能大幅促进总比表面积和总孔体积的增加,矿物转化能促进溶蚀孔和微裂隙的形成,压实作用对中孔和宏孔比表面积和孔隙体积的增长有明显的抑制作用。建立了鄂尔多斯盆地延长组陆相页岩孔隙演化模式:0.73%R_o≤1.37%,有机质大量生烃,孔隙比表面积和体积快速增加;1.37%R_o≤3.84%,由于压实作用及铁方解石充填孔隙,孔隙比表面积和体积减小;R_o3.48%,有机质的芳构化堵塞微孔,孔隙之间的合并使得中孔和大孔体积增加。     

页岩纳米级孔隙结构特征及热成熟演化

以中、上扬子地区下古生界海相和中生界陆相页岩为研究对象,运用氩离子抛光-场发射扫描电子显微镜技术和氮气吸附实验测试技术对页岩储层的纳米级孔隙发育特征及热成熟演化进行探讨。结果表明:页岩主要发育了有机质孔、粒间孔、粒内孔和微裂缝等4种孔隙类型;TOC和Ro是控制页岩纳米级孔隙发育的主要因素;对于高演化页岩,不同干酪根类型的有机质孔隙发育程度的大小次序为Ⅰ型Ⅱ型Ⅲ型;石英和黏土矿物通过控制TOC的变化对纳米级孔隙发育和分布产生间接影响;页岩热成熟度演化影响页岩孔径分布和微孔、中孔和大孔相对含量的变化,在高—过成熟阶段,与有机质有关的微孔、中孔呈不断增加的趋势,在极高成熟度阶段,页岩大孔转变为中孔和微孔,有机质孔隙变小,纳米级孔隙体积呈现出先增加后减小的趋势;页岩中干酪根、可溶沥青热裂解生气作用和甲烷化作用可能是页岩有机质纳米级孔隙形成的主要原因。     

Evolution of the continental crust

The continental crust covers nearly a third of the Earth's surface. It is buoyant--being less dense than the crust under the surrounding oceans--and is compositionally evolved, dominating the Earth's budget for those elements that preferentially partition into silicate liquid during mantle melting. Models for the differentiation of the continental crust can provide insights into how and when it was formed, and can be used to show that the composition of the basaltic protolith to the continental crust is similar to that of the average lower crust. From the late Archaean to late Proterozoic eras (some 3-1 billion years ago), much of the continental crust appears to have been generated in pulses of relatively rapid growth. Reconciling the sedimentary and igneous records for crustal evolution indicates that it may take up to one billion years for new crust to dominate the sedimentary record. Combining models for the differentiation of the crust and the residence time of elements in the upper crust indicates that the average rate of crust formation is some 2-3 times higher than most previous estimates.     

福建陆缘壳、幔异常结构与深部热储潜能分析

中国东南陆缘福建省境内地热资源丰富,近地表主要属于中、低温和中温水热存储。这种清洁的绿色资源如何有序规划与高效利用是福建地域可持续发展并在一定程度上替代部分化石能源所必须面对的重要课题。通过地球物理场和壳幔介质物理属性与结构环境分析和研究提出:(1)福建省大量的浅层水热资源在发展地方经济和民用中可形成一个中、低温及中温长期利用的网络平台;(2)探查福建陆缘地域地下是否存在热岩体乃能否有效替代部分化石能源的核心;(3)福建热田区地球物理边界场响应和壳幔介质属性与空间结构是探索与厘定地下热能能否稳定、安全、可靠和长期供给的基石;(4)漳州盆地深部可能存在干热岩的背景和边界条件。     

温度循环荷载下花岗岩微裂隙演化试验

花岗岩力学性能随环境温度的变化是岩石力学领域的热点问题,其微细观结构随温度的演化规律尚不清晰。本研究基于现代化测试技术和实验设备设计了等幅值温度循环和峰值递增温度循环荷载,关注其作用下花岗岩微裂隙的衍生和扩展规律,并讨论了风化程度的影响。研究结果表明峰值温度比循环次数对裂隙网络发展的影响更大,峰值递增的温度循环可促进表面裂隙的衍生,而风化在一定程度上可减弱温度荷载的影响。本研究可促进对温度作用下岩石力学性能演化的认知。