Ecologically implausible carbon response?

Magnani et al. present a very strong correlation between mean lifetime net ecosystem production (NEP, defined as the net rate of carbon (C) accumulation in ecosystems) and wet nitrogen (N) deposition. For their data in the range 4.9-9.8 kg N ha(-1) yr(-1), on which the correlation largely depends, the response is approximately 725 kg C per kg N in wet deposition. According to the authors, the maximum N wet deposition level of 9.8 kg N ha(-1) yr(-1) is equivalent to a total deposition of 15 kg N ha(-1 )yr(-1), implying a net sequestration near 470 kg C per kg N of total deposition. We question the ecological plausibility of the relationship and show, from a multi-factor analysis of European forest measurements, how interactions with site productivity and environment imply a much smaller NEP response to N deposition.     

Increased forest ecosystem carbon and nitrogen storage from nitrogen rich bedrock

Nitrogen (N) limits the productivity of many ecosystems worldwide, thereby restricting the ability of terrestrial ecosystems to offset the effects of rising atmospheric CO(2) emissions naturally. Understanding input pathways of bioavailable N is therefore paramount for predicting carbon (C) storage on land, particularly in temperate and boreal forests. Paradigms of nutrient cycling and limitation posit that new N enters terrestrial ecosystems solely from the atmosphere. Here we show that bedrock comprises a hitherto overlooked source of ecologically available N to forests. We report that the N content of soils and forest foliage on N-rich metasedimentary rocks (350-950?mg?N?kg(-1)) is elevated by more than 50% compared with similar temperate forest sites underlain by N-poor igneous parent material (30-70?mg?N?kg(-1)). Natural abundance N isotopes attribute this difference to rock-derived N: (15)N/(14)N values for rock, soils and plants are indistinguishable in sites underlain by N-rich lithology, in marked contrast to sites on N-poor substrates. Furthermore, forests associated with N-rich parent material contain on average 42% more carbon in above-ground tree biomass and 60% more carbon in the upper 30?cm of the soil than similar sites underlain by N-poor rocks. Our results raise the possibility that bedrock N input may represent an important and overlooked component of ecosystem N and C cycling elsewhere.     

尖峰岭次生林和原始林林下灌木叶氨基酸对氮添加的响应

为了深入地了解热带山地雨林原始林与次生林叶氨基酸对氮添加的响应和适应机制, 以海南尖峰岭热带山地雨林原始林和次生林的林下常见植物为研究对象, 通过设置对照CK (0 kg N/(ha·a))、中氮添加M (50 kg N/(ha·a))和高氮添加H (100 kg N/(ha·a)) 3种氮添加处理的实验, 探究氮添加对林下灌木叶片氨基酸含量的影响。实验结果表明, 无氮添加时, 原始林与次生林的总氨基酸含量和水解氨基酸含量无显著差异, 原始林游离氨基酸总含量显著高于次生林; 中氮添加时, 次生林林下灌木叶氨基酸含量的响应程度高于原始林; 高氮添加时, 次生林与原始林林下灌木水解氨基酸的响应程度无显著差异, 原始林林下灌木游离氨基酸的响应程度高于次生林。     

Respiration as the main determinant of carbon balance in European forests

Carbon exchange between the terrestrial biosphere and the atmosphere is one of the key processes that need to be assessed in the context of the Kyoto Protocol. Several studies suggest that the terrestrial biosphere is gaining carbon, but these estimates are obtained primarily by indirect methods, and the factors that control terrestrial carbon exchange, its magnitude and primary locations, are under debate. Here we present data of net ecosystem carbon exchange, collected between 1996 and 1998 from 15 European forests, which confirm that many European forest ecosystems act as carbon sinks. The annual carbon balances range from an uptake of 6.6 tonnes of carbon per hectare per year to a release of nearly 1 t C ha(-1) yr(-1), with a large variability between forests. The data show a significant increase of carbon uptake with decreasing latitude, whereas the gross primary production seems to be largely independent of latitude. Our observations indicate that, in general, ecosystem respiration determines net ecosystem carbon exchange. Also, for an accurate assessment of the carbon balance in a particular forest ecosystem, remote sensing of the normalized difference vegetation index or estimates based on forest inventories may not be sufficient.     

Annual fluxes of carbon from deforestation and regrowth in the Brazilian Amazon

The distribution of sources and sinks of carbon among the world's ecosystems is uncertain. Some analyses show northern mid-latitude lands to be a large sink, whereas the tropics are a net source; other analyses show the tropics to be nearly neutral, whereas northern mid-latitudes are a small sink. Here we show that the annual flux of carbon from deforestation and abandonment of agricultural lands in the Brazilian Amazon was a source of about 0.2 Pg Cyr(-1) over the period 1989-1998 (1 Pg is 10(15) g). This estimate is based on annual rates of deforestation and spatially detailed estimates of deforestation, regrowing forests and biomass. Logging may add another 5-10% to this estimate, and fires may double the magnitude of the source in years following a drought. The annual source of carbon from land-use change and fire approximately offsets the sink calculated for natural ecosystems in the region. Thus this large area of tropical forest is nearly balanced with respect to carbon, but has an interannual variability of +/- 0.2 PgC yr(-1).     

海莲红树林氮磷的累积和循环

主要讨论55年生海莲林的氮、磷元素累积和循环。测定结果表明:现存量中含有氮、磷总量分别为 142.74 g/m~2 和16.57 g/m~2 。其中地上部分别为 75.31 g/m~2 和 7.82g/m~2,地下部分别为 67.43 g/m~2 和 8.75g/m~2 。该群落氮、磷元素生物循环中,年吸收量分别为19.0 g/m~2 和 2.41 g/m~2 ,存留量分别为 7.53 g/m~2 和 1.01 g/m~2 ,归还量分别为 11.47 g/m~2 和1.40 g/m~2 。它们的氮含量均大于磷含量,周转期氮需 13年比磷需12年为慢。     

Ecology: human role in Russian wild fires

Anomalies in temperature and precipitation in northern Russia over the past few years have been viewed as manifestations of anthropogenic climate change, prompting suggestions that this may also account for exceptional forest fires in the region. Here we examine the number of forest-fire events across the boreal Russian Federation for the period 2002 to 2005 in 'intact' forests, where human influence is limited, and in 'non-intact' forests, which have been shaped by human activity. Our results show that there were more fires in years during which the weather was anomalous, but that more than 87% of fires in boreal Russia were started by people.     

Endangered plants persist under phosphorus limitation

Nitrogen enrichment is widely thought to be responsible for the loss of plant species from temperate terrestrial ecosystems. This view is based on field surveys and controlled experiments showing that species richness correlates negatively with high productivity and nitrogen enrichment. However, as the type of nutrient limitation has never been examined on a large geographical scale the causality of these relationships is uncertain. We investigated species richness in herbaceous terrestrial ecosystems, sampled along a transect through temperate Eurasia that represented a gradient of declining levels of atmospheric nitrogen deposition--from approximately 50 kg ha(-1) yr(-1) in western Europe to natural background values of less than 5 kg ha(-1) yr(-1) in Siberia. Here we show that many more endangered plant species persist under phosphorus-limited than under nitrogen-limited conditions, and we conclude that enhanced phosphorus is more likely to be the cause of species loss than nitrogen enrichment. Our results highlight the need for a better understanding of the mechanisms of phosphorus enrichment, and for a stronger focus on conservation management to reduce phosphorus availability.     

Recuperation of nitrogen cycling in Amazonian forests following agricultural abandonment

Phosphorus (P) is generally considered the most common limiting nutrient for productivity of mature tropical lowland forests growing on highly weathered soils. It is often assumed that P limitation also applies to young tropical forests, but nitrogen (N) losses during land-use change may alter the stoichiometric balance of nutrient cycling processes. In the Amazon basin, about 16% of the original forest area has been cleared, and about 30-50% of cleared land is estimated now to be in some stage of secondary forest succession following agricultural abandonment. Here we use forest age chronosequences to demonstrate that young successional forests growing after agricultural abandonment on highly weathered lowland tropical soils exhibit conservative N-cycling properties much like those of N-limited forests on younger soils in temperate latitudes. As secondary succession progresses, N-cycling properties recover and the dominance of a conservative P cycle typical of mature lowland tropical forests re-emerges. These successional shifts in N:P cycling ratios with forest age provide a mechanistic explanation for initially lower and then gradually increasing soil emissions of the greenhouse gas nitrous oxide (N(2)O). The patterns of N and P cycling during secondary forest succession, demonstrated here over decadal timescales, are similar to N- and P-cycling patterns during primary succession as soils age over thousands and millions of years, thus revealing that N availability in terrestrial ecosystems is ephemeral and can be disrupted by either natural or anthropogenic disturbances at several timescales.     

杨-桤混交林及其凋落物对土壤氮矿化的影响

【目的】研究含氮量中等的立地条件下杨-桤混交林相比于杨树纯林能否增加土壤养分,分析桤木是否为合适的固氮树种,探讨桤木与杨树营造混交林以缓解人工林连栽带来的土地肥力衰退问题。【方法】以苏北地区杨树人工纯林以及杨-桤(1∶1)混交林为研究对象,采用尼龙网袋法观察两种林分下凋落叶质量分解以及养分释放的过程,比较两种凋落物处理(去除凋落物与保留凋落物)对土壤全氮以及碱解氮含量的影响。采用树脂芯田间原位培养法,研究杨-桤混交林与杨树纯林两种林分在两种凋落物处理下,林地土壤氮年净矿化量的变化。【结果】营造杨-桤混交林显著提高了林地土壤全氮和碱解氮含量。杨树纯林凋落物分解时需从周围土壤中吸收更多氮素,且分解速率较慢。杨-桤混交林凋落物分解更快进入氮释放状态,因此去除凋落物后混交林土壤碱解氮显著减少。保留凋落物处理下,杨-桤混交林中每公顷土壤氮年净氨化量显著高于杨树纯林中的,去除凋落物后两者差异不显著。【结论】研究发现,桤木是杨树较合适的伴生树种,营造杨-桤混交林可以起到增加土壤全氮和碱解氮含量的作用,有助于缓解杨树纯林连栽带来的地力下降问题。混交林凋落物分解速率与氮素释放速率更快,有利于人工林生态系统氮循环。保留凋落物处理下,混交林中每公顷土壤氮年净氨化量显著高于杨树纯林的,而每公顷土壤氮年净硝化量没有显著差异,表明混交林凋落物分解释放的氮素主要促进土壤氨化过程,对土壤硝化过程影响较弱。     

Mountain pine beetle and forest carbon feedback to climate change

The mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae Hopkins, Coleoptera: Curculionidae, Scolytinae) is a native insect of the pine forests of western North America, and its populations periodically erupt into large-scale outbreaks. During outbreaks, the resulting widespread tree mortality reduces forest carbon uptake and increases future emissions from the decay of killed trees. The impacts of insects on forest carbon dynamics, however, are generally ignored in large-scale modelling analyses. The current outbreak in British Columbia, Canada, is an order of magnitude larger in area and severity than all previous recorded outbreaks. Here we estimate that the cumulative impact of the beetle outbreak in the affected region during 2000-2020 will be 270 megatonnes (Mt) carbon (or 36 g carbon m(-2) yr(-1) on average over 374,000 km2 of forest). This impact converted the forest from a small net carbon sink to a large net carbon source both during and immediately after the outbreak. In the worst year, the impacts resulting from the beetle outbreak in British Columbia were equivalent to approximately 75% of the average annual direct forest fire emissions from all of Canada during 1959-1999. The resulting reduction in net primary production was of similar magnitude to increases observed during the 1980s and 1990s as a result of global change. Climate change has contributed to the unprecedented extent and severity of this outbreak. Insect outbreaks such as this represent an important mechanism by which climate change may undermine the ability of northern forests to take up and store atmospheric carbon, and such impacts should be accounted for in large-scale modelling analyses.     

Old-growth forests as global carbon sinks

Old-growth forests remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere at rates that vary with climate and nitrogen deposition. The sequestered carbon dioxide is stored in live woody tissues and slowly decomposing organic matter in litter and soil. Old-growth forests therefore serve as a global carbon dioxide sink, but they are not protected by international treaties, because it is generally thought that ageing forests cease to accumulate carbon. Here we report a search of literature and databases for forest carbon-flux estimates. We find that in forests between 15 and 800 years of age, net ecosystem productivity (the net carbon balance of the forest including soils) is usually positive. Our results demonstrate that old-growth forests can continue to accumulate carbon, contrary to the long-standing view that they are carbon neutral. Over 30 per cent of the global forest area is unmanaged primary forest, and this area contains the remaining old-growth forests. Half of the primary forests (6 x 10(8) hectares) are located in the boreal and temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. On the basis of our analysis, these forests alone sequester about 1.3 +/- 0.5 gigatonnes of carbon per year. Thus, our findings suggest that 15 per cent of the global forest area, which is currently not considered when offsetting increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations, provides at least 10 per cent of the global net ecosystem productivity. Old-growth forests accumulate carbon for centuries and contain large quantities of it. We expect, however, that much of this carbon, even soil carbon, will move back to the atmosphere if these forests are disturbed.     

Loss of plant species after chronic low-level nitrogen deposition to prairie grasslands

Rates of atmospheric deposition of biologically active nitrogen (N) are two to seven times the pre-industrial rates in many developed nations because of combustion of fossil fuels and agricultural fertilization. They are expected to increase similarly over the next 50 years in industrializing nations of Asia and South America. Although the environmental impacts of high rates of nitrogen addition have been well studied, this is not so for the lower, chronic rates that characterize much of the globe. Here we present results of the first multi-decadal experiment to examine the impacts of chronic, experimental nitrogen addition as low as 10 kg N ha(-1) yr(-1) above ambient atmospheric nitrogen deposition (6 kg N ha(-1) yr(-1) at our site). This total input rate is comparable to terrestrial nitrogen deposition in many industrialized nations. We found that this chronic low-level nitrogen addition rate reduced plant species numbers by 17% relative to controls receiving ambient N deposition. Moreover, species numbers were reduced more per unit of added nitrogen at lower addition rates, suggesting that chronic but low-level nitrogen deposition may have a greater impact on diversity than previously thought. A second experiment showed that a decade after cessation of nitrogen addition, relative plant species number, although not species abundances, had recovered, demonstrating that some effects of nitrogen addition are reversible.     

氮磷添加对亚热带常绿阔叶林凋落物产量及其养分含量的影响

【目的】凋落物是森林净生产量的重要组分,探讨森林凋落物生产及其养分归还量对氮磷添加的响应,为亚热带常绿阔叶林可持续经营提供科学依据。【方法】选择安徽池州亚热带常绿阔叶林,包括甜槠(Castanopsis eyrei)老龄林和苦槠(C. sclerophylla)中龄林,开展氮磷添加试验,设置3个处理,即氮[N 100 kg /(hm²·a)]、氮+磷[N 100 kg /(hm²·a) +P 50 kg /(hm²·a)]和对照(CK,无氮磷添加)。采用凋落物收集框法,对林分凋落物生产量及其养分归还量进行了为期1年的监测(2017年5月至2018年4月)。【结果】N+P处理下,苦槠林和甜槠林总凋落物量最高值分别为9.502、7.120 t/(hm²·a);其次是N处理,分别为8.393、7.041 t/(hm²·a);CK林分分别为7.724和6.697 t/(hm²·a),氮磷添加提高了总凋落物量,但不同处理间没有显著差异。在N处理和对照条件下,两林分凋落物各组分所占比例由大到小顺序均为:落叶、落枝、碎屑、落花落果。但在N+P处理的苦槠林中由大到小依次为:落叶、落枝、落花落果、碎屑。N处理下,苦槠林和甜槠林凋落物年均氮含量分别为14.199和13.648 g/kg,N+P处理分别为13.863和13.650 g/kg,CK林分分别为13.384和13.094 g/kg。各处理下苦槠林和甜槠林凋落物年均磷含量由大到小顺序为N+P、CK、N处理。两林分凋落物的氮磷含量和年归还量不同处理间差异均不显著;不同处理间的苦槠林和甜槠林凋落物的氮磷比均无明显差异。【结论】氮沉降提高了苦槠和甜槠林凋落物产量,磷添加具有一定的增效作用,表明磷添加缓解了氮沉降引起的磷限制作用。     

A unifying framework for dinitrogen fixation in the terrestrial biosphere

Dinitrogen (N(2)) fixation is widely recognized as an important process in controlling ecosystem responses to global environmental change, both today and in the past; however, significant discrepancies exist between theory and observations of patterns of N(2) fixation across major sectors of the land biosphere. A question remains as to why symbiotic N(2)-fixing plants are more abundant in vast areas of the tropics than in many of the mature forests that seem to be nitrogen-limited in the temperate and boreal zones. Here we present a unifying framework for terrestrial N(2) fixation that can explain the geographic occurrence of N(2) fixers across diverse biomes and at the global scale. By examining trade-offs inherent in plant carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus capture, we find a clear advantage to symbiotic N(2) fixers in phosphorus-limited tropical savannas and lowland tropical forests. The ability of N(2) fixers to invest nitrogen into phosphorus acquisition seems vital to sustained N(2) fixation in phosphorus-limited tropical ecosystems. In contrast, modern-day temperatures seem to constrain N(2) fixation rates and N(2)-fixing species from mature forests in the high latitudes. We propose that an analysis that couples biogeochemical cycling and biophysical mechanisms is sufficient to explain the principal geographical patterns of symbiotic N(2) fixation on land, thus providing a basis for predicting the response of nutrient-limited ecosystems to climate change and increasing atmospheric CO(2).     

喀斯特原生乔木林和次生林土壤氮矿化特征

【目的】探究喀斯特森林土壤氮矿化特征及供氮能力。【方法】以贵州喀斯特原生乔木林和次生林为研究对象,采用树脂芯法,原位连续培养测定土壤氮矿化/硝化动态特征。【结果】①喀斯特原生乔木林和次生林土壤无机氮含量随培养时间延长存在明显的变化,NH⁺₄-N含量呈先增加后减少再增加趋势,NO^-₃-N含量表现为总体增加趋势。NH⁺₄-N是土壤有效氮的主要存在形式,其含量占土壤无机氮的84.57%～94.31%。②两演替群落土壤氮矿化速率呈“V”形变化,范围分别为-0.43～0.97 mg/(kg·d)和-0.91～1.43 mg/(kg·d); 硝化速率呈波动上升趋势,范围分别为0.21～0.49 mg/(kg·d)和0.03～0.31 mg/(kg·d)。③原生乔木林土壤无机氮含量、矿化速率、氨化速率和硝化速率均高于次生林。④原生乔木林土壤氮全年净矿化总量170.82 kg/(hm²·a),是次生林的2.48倍,两种林分土壤净硝化氮分别占净矿化氮的95%和100%。【结论】喀斯特森林土壤供氮能力较强,但土壤氮矿化过程中氮硝化占主导,表明土壤中植物可利用的氮素易于淋溶或挥发损失。     

“碳中和”背景下碳输入方式对森林土壤活性氮库及氮循环的影响

森林生态系统具有碳源和碳汇双重功能,调控森林中碳输入方式对于实现我国“碳中和”目标具有重要意义。作为森林土壤有机碳(SOC)的主要来源,不同碳(C)输入方式(如地上凋落物、地下植物根系等)对森林生态系统土壤氮(N)循环的影响一直是相关学者的研究重点。笔者综述了目前国内外不同C输入方式对土壤活性N库、土壤N矿化、硝化过程及氧化亚氮(N₂O)排放的影响研究现状,分析了森林土壤活性N库及N转化过程对不同C输入变化的响应,发现:① 地上C排除可以降低土壤有效态氮(主要包括$NH_{4}^{+}$-N和$NO_{3}^{-}$-N)的含量,但地下C排除却增加了土壤$NH_{4}^{+}$-N含量。C输入方式的改变对土壤微生物生物量氮(MBN)含量影响具有不确定性,这可能与生态系统类型、树种组成、时间尺度等因素相关。此外,地下C排除对土壤可溶性氮(DON)含量的影响较地上C排除的大,地下根系可能是影响土壤DON含量的主要贡献者。② 地上C输入对土壤N矿化及硝化速率的影响在短期内较大,而长期影响较小。其主要是通过间接改变土壤微生物活性从而影响了土壤N矿化及硝化过程,地下C排除增加了土壤N矿化速率,且随着时间尺度的增加表现更加明显。③ 地上C输入通过改变硝化和反硝化微生物的可利用C源而间接影响了N₂O的排放,且受到树种影响显著,而地下C输入对N₂O的影响因根系质量等的差异而发生改变。综上可知,森林土壤活性N库及N循环过程对不同C输入具有不同的响应机制,且受生态系统类型、物种、时间等因素影响较大。目前关于两种乃至多物种不同C的输入对森林土壤N影响的研究较少,且定性研究较为普遍;对优化森林生态系统地上地下C输入动态模型和精准预算不足,尚未建立完整的碳减排生态补偿机制。今后的研究亟须定量了解不同森林生态系统不同的C输入及其两者或者多物种之间的交互影响对土壤N的影响机制,且需更多地考虑在时间尺度上的长期变化过程;需要提升核算与预测森林地上地下碳中和能力,加快森林碳中和技术研发,为提前实现“碳中和”战略目标提供科技支撑。     

Fire as the dominant driver of central Canadian boreal forest carbon balance

Changes in climate, atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration and fire regimes have been occurring for decades in the global boreal forest, with future climate change likely to increase fire frequency--the primary disturbance agent in most boreal forests. Previous attempts to assess quantitatively the effect of changing environmental conditions on the net boreal forest carbon balance have not taken into account the competition between different vegetation types on a large scale. Here we use a process model with three competing vascular and non-vascular vegetation types to examine the effects of climate, carbon dioxide concentrations and fire disturbance on net biome production, net primary production and vegetation dominance in 100 Mha of Canadian boreal forest. We find that the carbon balance of this region was driven by changes in fire disturbance from 1948 to 2005. Climate changes affected the variability, but not the mean, of the landscape carbon balance, with precipitation exerting a more significant effect than temperature. We show that more frequent and larger fires in the late twentieth century resulted in deciduous trees and mosses increasing production at the expense of coniferous trees. Our model did not however exhibit the increases in total forest net primary production that have been inferred from satellite data. We find that poor soil drainage decreased the variability of the landscape carbon balance, which suggests that increased climate and hydrological changes have the potential to affect disproportionately the carbon dynamics of these areas. Overall, we conclude that direct ecophysiological changes resulting from global climate change have not yet been felt in this large boreal region. Variations in the landscape carbon balance and vegetation dominance have so far been driven largely by increases in fire frequency.     

西藏亚高山暗针叶林的分布与生长

<正>一、西藏东南部拥有极丰富而特异的地貌类型、生态类型、生物种群和森林植被类型。藏东南林区有大面积古老,健康而完好的天然森林生态系统。其中亚高山暗针叶林是分布广、面积大、稳定性强、生物生产量高的森林群系。 二,西藏亚高山暗针叶林是寒温带暗针叶林分布最南、最高的林区之一。由于地带三向性的分异,亚高山暗针叶林有明显的水平分区和垂直分带。在各区,带中,森林群系,建群种,林型及其生长状况都有明显的差异。 三,西藏亚高山暗针叶林的水平分布可分为三亚区:(1)三江流域峡谷、山原块状暗针叶林亚区;(2)喜马拉雅山南麓高山峡谷湿润暗针叶林亚区;(3)雅鲁藏布江中下游沟谷暗针叶林亚区。 在分布区的海拔2700—4300米的垂直带内,分布有云杉林群系、冷杉林群系和圆柏林群系。各群系的分布带内,随水热状况的变化组成有规律的林型垂直分布带谱。 四、西藏亚高山暗针叶林的生长特点为;立木高大,生长持续期长,林分蓄积量高。在喜马拉雅山南麓湿润区,云杉林分的蓄积最高达每公顷3500余立方米,平均胸径111厘米,平均高67米。立木最大胸径162厘米,最大树高72米。 五、不同海拔高度与坡向的暗针叶林林分生长差异显著。在喜马拉雅山南麓湿润区,云杉的最适分布带在海拔2700—2800米,冷杉的最适分布带在海拔3600—3700米。北坡的林分生长远优于南坡。     

重庆市铁山坪针叶林和观音桥阔叶林的降水化学特征

研究并比较了重庆市铁山坪马尾松和观音桥樟树降水的化学特征,分析了大气降水的化学物质输入及其降 水淋溶对森林生态系统物质循环产生的影响,并对各种离子组分的来源进行了初步解析.结果表明:针叶林穿透 水有进一步酸化趋势,而阔叶林可以减缓酸化作用.大气降水和穿透水是养份输入的主要形式,其中以穿透水养 份输入为主.穿透水中N元素可能被吸收,其它营养元素则主要来自干沉降洗脱和植被的淋溶.