The chemical structure of the Hawaiian mantle plume

The Hawaiian-Emperor volcanic island and seamount chain is usually attributed to a hot mantle plume, located beneath the Pacific lithosphere, that delivers material sourced from deep in the mantle to the surface. The shield volcanoes of the Hawaiian islands are distributed in two curvilinear, parallel trends (termed 'Kea' and 'Loa'), whose rocks are characterized by general geochemical differences. This has led to the proposition that Hawaiian volcanoes sample compositionally distinct, concentrically zoned, regions of the underlying mantle plume. Melt inclusions, or samples of local magma 'frozen' in olivine phenocrysts during crystallization, may record complexities of mantle sources, thereby providing better insight into the chemical structure of plumes. Here we report the discovery of both Kea- and Loa-like major and trace element compositions in olivine-hosted melt inclusions in individual, shield-stage Hawaiian volcanoes--even within single rock samples. We infer from these data that one mantle source component may dominate a single lava flow, but that the two mantle source components are consistently represented to some extent in all lavas, regardless of the specific geographic location of the volcano. We therefore suggest that the Hawaiian mantle plume is unlikely to be compositionally concentrically zoned. Instead, the observed chemical variation is probably controlled by the thermal structure of the plume.     

An olivine-free mantle source of Hawaiian shield basalts

More than 50 per cent of the Earth's upper mantle consists of olivine and it is generally thought that mantle-derived melts are generated in equilibrium with this mineral. Here, however, we show that the unusually high nickel and silicon contents of most parental Hawaiian magmas are inconsistent with a deep olivine-bearing source, because this mineral together with pyroxene buffers both nickel and silicon at lower levels. This can be resolved if the olivine of the mantle peridotite is consumed by reaction with melts derived from recycled oceanic crust, to form a secondary pyroxenitic source. Our modelling shows that more than half of Hawaiian magmas formed during the past 1 Myr came from this source. In addition, we estimate that the proportion of recycled (oceanic) crust varies from 30 per cent near the plume centre to insignificant levels at the plume edge. These results are also consistent with volcano volumes, magma volume flux and seismological observations.     

Thallium isotopic evidence for ferromanganese sediments in the mantle source of Hawaiian basalts

Ocean island basalts are generally thought to be the surface expression of mantle plumes, but the nature of the components in the source regions of such mantle plumes is a subject of long-standing debate. The lavas erupted at Hawaii have attracted particular attention, as it has been proposed that coupled 186Os and 187Os anomalies reflect interaction with the Earth's metallic core. It has recently been suggested, however, that such variations could also result from addition of oceanic ferromanganese sediments to the mantle source of these lavas. Here we show that Hawaiian picrites with osmium isotope anomalies also exhibit pronounced thallium isotope variations, which are coupled with caesium/thallium ratios that extend to values much lower than commonly observed for mantle-derived rocks. This correlation cannot be created by admixing of core material, and is best explained by the addition of ferromanganese sediments into the Hawaii mantle source region. However, the lack of correlation between thallium and osmium isotopes and the high thallium/osmium ratios of ferromanganese sediments preclude a sedimentary origin for the osmium isotope anomalies, and leaves core-mantle interaction as a viable explanation for the osmium isotope variations of the Hawaiian picrites.     

Lead isotopes reveal bilateral asymmetry and vertical continuity in the Hawaiian mantle plume

The two parallel chains of Hawaiian volcanoes ('Loa' and 'Kea') are known to have statistically different but overlapping radiogenic isotope characteristics. This has been explained by a model of a concentrically zoned mantle plume, where the Kea chain preferentially samples a more peripheral portion of the plume. Using high-precision lead isotope data for both centrally and peripherally located volcanoes, we show here that the two trends have very little compositional overlap and instead reveal bilateral, non-concentric plume zones, probably derived from the plume source in the mantle. On a smaller scale, along the Kea chain, there are isotopic differences between the youngest lavas from the Mauna Kea and Kilauea volcanoes, but the 550-thousand-year-old Mauna Kea lavas are isotopically identical to Kilauea lavas, consistent with Mauna Kea's position relative to the plume, which was then similar to that of present-day Kilauea. We therefore conclude that narrow (less than 50 kilometres wide) compositional streaks, as well as the larger-scale bilateral zonation, are vertically continuous over tens to hundreds of kilometres within the plume.     

Modelling the rheology of MgO under Earth's mantle pressure, temperature and strain rates

Plate tectonics, which shapes the surface of Earth, is the result of solid-state convection in Earth's mantle over billions of years. Simply driven by buoyancy forces, mantle convection is complicated by the nature of the convecting materials, which are not fluids but polycrystalline rocks. Crystalline materials can flow as the result of the motion of defects--point defects, dislocations, grain boundaries and so on. Reproducing in the laboratory the extreme deformation conditions of the mantle is extremely challenging. In particular, experimental strain rates are at least six orders of magnitude larger than in nature. Here we show that the rheology of MgO at the pressure, temperature and strain rates of the mantle is accessible by multiscale numerical modelling starting from first principles and with no adjustable parameters. Our results demonstrate that extremely low strain rates counteract the influence of pressure. In the mantle, MgO deforms in the athermal regime and this leads to a very weak phase. It is only in the lowermost lower mantle that the pressure effect could dominate and that, under the influence of lattice friction, a viscosity of the order of 10(21)-10(22) pascal seconds can be defined for MgO.     

Resistance to mantle flow inferred from the electromagnetic strike of the Australian upper mantle

Seismic anisotropy is thought to result from the strain-induced lattice-preferred orientation of mantle minerals, especially olivine, owing to shear waves propagating faster along the a-axis of olivine crystals than along the other axes. This anisotropy results in birefringence, or 'shear-wave splitting', which has been investigated in numerous studies. Although olivine is also anisotropic with respect to electrical conductivity (with the a-axis being most conductive), few studies of the electrical anisotropy of the upper mantle have been undertaken, and these have been limited to relatively shallow depths in the lithospheric upper mantle. Theoretical models of mantle flow have been used to infer that, for progressive simple shear imparted by the motion of an overriding tectonic plate, the a-axes of olivine crystals should align themselves parallel to the direction of plate motion. Here, however, we show that a significant discrepancy exists between the electromagnetic strike of the mantle below Australia and the direction of present-day absolute plate motion. We infer from this discrepancy that the a-axes of olivine crystals are not aligned with the direction of the present-day plate motion of Australia, indicating resistance to deformation of the mantle by plate motion.     

Inferring the statistical interpretation of quantum mechanics from the classical limit

It is widely believed that the statistical interpretation of quantum mechanics cannot be inferred from the Schrodinger equation itself, and must be stated as an additional independent axiom. Here I propose that the situation is not so stark. For systems that have both continuous and discrete degrees of freedom (such as coordinates and spin respectively), the statistical interpretation for the discrete variables is implied by requiring that the system's gross motion can be classically described under circumstances specified by the Schrodinger equation. However, this is not a full-fledged derivation of the statistical interpretation because it does not apply to the continuous variables of classical mechanics.     

Polybaric partial melting in the continental mantle: Evidence from mantle xenoliths from Qilin Guangdong Province

The extremely low Ti content (160–245 μg/g) in clinopyroxene in some spinel peridotites from Qilin, South China is indicative of high degree of partial melting, inconsistent with their relatively high clinopyroxene modes (7.4%–12.4%). These clinopyroxenes show fractionated HREE patterns ((Gd/Yb)_n<0.2), suggesting the involvement of garnet in the melting regime. These REE patterns can be modeled as residues of 22%–23% fractional melting from a primitive mantle, first in garnet stability field (12%) then continuing in spinel stability field (10%–11%) after breakdown of garnet to pyroxenes and spinel. Such a polybaric melting suggests the lithospheric thinning and rapid mantle upwelling in south China during the Cenozoic. This is consistent with the dominant MORB-OIB isotopic signature and high thermal gradient of the lithospheric mantle in this region, and supports the contention that the formation of South China Sea basin is related to southward migration of continental lithosphere extension, rather than passive back-arc basin.     

Deformation of the lowermost mantle from seismic anisotropy

The lowermost part of the Earth's mantle-known as D″-shows significant seismic anisotropy, the variation of seismic wave speed with direction. This is probably due to deformation-induced alignment of MgSiO(3)-post-perovskite (ppv), which is believed to be the main mineral phase present in the region. If this is the case, then previous measurements of D″ anisotropy, which are generally made in one direction only, are insufficient to distinguish candidate mechanisms of slip in ppv because the mineral is orthorhombic. Here we measure anisotropy in D″ beneath North and Central America, where material from subducting oceanic slabs impinges on the core-mantle boundary, using shallow as well as deep earthquakes to increase the azimuthal coverage in D″. We make more than 700 individual measurements of shear wave splitting in D″ in three regions from two different azimuths in each case. We show that the previously assumed case of vertical transverse isotropy (where wave speed shows no azimuthal variation) is not possible, and that more complicated mechanisms must be involved. We test the fit of different MgSiO(3)-ppv deformation mechanisms to our results and find that shear on (001) is most consistent with observations and the expected shear above the core-mantle boundary beneath subduction zones. With new models of mantle flow, or improved experimental determination of the dominant ppv slip systems, this method will allow us to map deformation at the core-mantle boundary and link processes in D″, such as plume initiation, to the rest of the mantle.     

Petrology and thermal structure of the Hawaiian plume from Mauna Kea volcano

There is uncertainty about whether the abundant tholeiitic lavas on Hawaii are the product of melt from peridotite or pyroxenite/eclogite rocks. Using a parameterization of melting experiments on peridotite with glass analyses from the Hawaii Scientific Deep Project 2 on Mauna Kea volcano, I show here that a small population of the core samples had fractionated from a peridotite-source primary magma. Most lavas, however, differentiated from magmas that were too deficient in CaO and enriched in NiO (ref. 2) to have formed from a peridotite source. For these, experiments indicate that they were produced by the melting of garnet pyroxenite, a lithology that had formed in a second stage by reaction of peridotite with partial melts of subducted oceanic crust. Samples in the Hawaiian core are therefore consistent with previous suggestions that pyroxenite occurs in a host peridotite, and both contribute to melt production. Primary magma compositions vary down the drill core, and these reveal evidence for temperature variations within the underlying mantle plume. Mauna Kea magmatism is represented in other Hawaiian volcanoes, and provides a key for a general understanding of melt production in lithologically heterogeneous mantle.     

通过猜词法附带习得词汇的研究综述

二语词汇附带习得是词汇拓展的一种重要方式,通过语境猜测词义则是词汇附带习得的常见途径。本文就词汇附带习得中语境猜词法的相关理论,有关实证研究以及猜词法应注意的问题进行了探讨,以期对二语词汇教学和学习有一定启示。     

IKONOS图象的城市土地利用信息提取方法研究

目前，高分辨率遥感图象正愈来愈多地应用于土地与水资源的监测和管理，其中，IKONOS图象数据因其具有较高的空间分辨率和人机交互的解译效果．在省市土地利用信息获取及在城市研究中更具有广阔的应用前景．以南京幅的IKONOS图象数据为基础．以城乡接合部的不同试验区为对象，着重讨论了高分辨率遥感图象城市土地利用信息的提取与分类方法其主要思想是先应用常用的多光谱分类算法对试验区的土地利用现状进行初始的类别划分，然后采用Majority Filtering技术获取图象的上下信息，并给你根据地物的形状特征和空间关系对初始分类结果进行校正与调整．研究结果表明，当初始的类别划分能满足一定精度时，采用本所提出的方法能进一步改善高分辨率图象城市土地利用信息的分类效果．     

位置服务大数据下广州市土地利用类型模拟探讨

位置服务(LBS)产生的时空行为大数据为地理环境模拟提供了重要机遇,也为土地利用类型的模拟识别提供了创新思路。位置服务大数据下的居民活动强度的周期性变化与土地利用有显著相关性,带有较强的土地利用指示性,在土地利用类型模拟识别上具有较大的应用价值。以广州为案例,本文利用百度地图平台APP联盟用户的位置服务大数据,以150*150m格网为精度单元,应用监督分类方法中的随机森林分析法模拟识别土地利用类型,模拟总准确率达72.40%,其中,村镇建设用地、工业用地、公园绿地、居住用地和商业金融用地的预测准确率分别为50.39%、82.65%、49.53%、82.66%和49.56%。研究结果表明随机森林方法在应用高密度时空行为大数据进行土地利用类型模拟的有效性及位置服务大数据在城市土地利用类型模拟上的潜在价值,也反映了居民活动强度空间形态与土地利用之间的显著相关性。当然,这需要利用不同的技术手段在不同城市和城市的不同区域上更多的案例实证。     

Insights into the dynamics of mantle plumes from uranium-series geochemistry

The long-standing paradigm that hotspot volcanoes such as Hawaii or Iceland represent the surface expression of mantle plumes--hot, buoyant upwelling regions beneath the Earth's lithosphere--has recently been the focus of controversy. Whether mantle plumes exist or not is pivotal for our understanding of the thermal, dynamic and compositional evolution of the Earth's mantle. Here we show that uranium-series disequilibria measured in hotspot lavas indicate that hotspots are indeed associated with hot and buoyant upwellings and that weaker (low buoyancy flux) hotspots such as Iceland and the Azores are characterized by lower excess temperatures than stronger hotspots such as Hawaii. This direct link between buoyancy flux and mantle temperature is evidence for the existence of mantle plumes.     

Leakage of mantle helium from the Liaodong Peninsula, China

The isotopic cumpositions of helium have been investigated in hot spring gases sampled from the Liaodong Peninsula. China. The³He/⁴He ratios range from 0.14 Ra (0.14 times the atmospheric³He/⁴He ratio of 1.40 × 10^-6 to 0.72 Ra.³He/⁴He versus⁴He/²⁰Ne ratios and He contents suggest that a small amount of mantle-derived helium reaches the earth’s surface. Helium iwtope ratios of the hot spring gases show a distribution pattern similar to the regional heat flow values, indicating that the positive thermal anomaly occurring in the rtrea is closely associated with the presence of mantle-derived helium. The observations described above provide some significant evidence that the molten magma originating from partial melting of the upper mantle may have intruded into the continental crust along the activity fault. The coupling of the presence of mantle He and heat flow anomalies to seismic activity in studied region seem to imply that there is an internal relationship between mantle degassing and seismic activity.     

Crustal rheology of the Himalaya and Southern Tibet inferred from magnetotelluric data

The Cenozoic collision between the Indian and Asian continents formed the Tibetan plateau, beginning about 70 million years ago. Since this time, at least 1,400 km of convergence has been accommodated by a combination of underthrusting of Indian and Asian lithosphere, crustal shortening, horizontal extrusion and lithospheric delamination. Rocks exposed in the Himalaya show evidence of crustal melting and are thought to have been exhumed by rapid erosion and climatically forced crustal flow. Magnetotelluric data can be used to image subsurface electrical resistivity, a parameter sensitive to the presence of interconnected fluids in the host rock matrix, even at low volume fractions. Here we present magnetotelluric data from the Tibetan-Himalayan orogen from 77 degrees E to 92 degrees E, which show that low resistivity, interpreted as a partially molten layer, is present along at least 1,000 km of the southern margin of the Tibetan plateau. The inferred low viscosity of this layer is consistent with the development of climatically forced crustal flow in Southern Tibet.     

Perception of shape from shading

The human visual system can rapidly and accurately derive the three-dimensional orientation of surfaces by using variations in image intensity alone. This ability to perceive shape from shading is one of the most important yet poorly understood aspects of human vision. Here we present several findings which may help reveal computational mechanisms underlying this ability. First, we find that perception of shape from shading is a global operation which assumes that there is only one light source illuminating the entire visual image. This implies that if two identical objects are viewed simultaneously and illuminated from different angles, then we would be able to perceive three-dimensional shape accurately in only one of them at a time. Second, three-dimensional shapes that are defined exclusively by shading can provide tokens for the perception of apparent motion, suggesting that the motion mechanism is remarkably versatile in the kinds of inputs it can use. Lastly, the occluding edges which delineate an object from its background can also powerfully influence the perception of three-dimensional shape from shading.     

Rejuvenation of the lithosphere by the Hawaiian plume

The volcanism responsible for creating the chain of the Hawaiian islands and seamounts is believed to mark the passage of the oceanic lithosphere over a mantle plume. In this picture hot material rises from great depth within a fixed narrow conduit to the surface, penetrating the moving lithosphere. Although a number of models describe possible plume-lithosphere interactions, seismic imaging techniques have not had sufficient resolution to distinguish between them. Here we apply the S-wave 'receiver function' technique to data of three permanent seismic broadband stations on the Hawaiian islands, to map the thickness of the underlying lithosphere. We find that under Big Island the lithosphere is 100-110 km thick, as expected for an oceanic plate 90-100 million years old that is not modified by a plume. But the lithosphere thins gradually along the island chain to about 50-60 km below Kauai. The width of the thinning is about 300 km. In this zone, well within the larger-scale topographic swell, we infer that the rejuvenation model (where the plume thins the lithosphere) is operative; however, the larger-scale topographic swell is probably supported dynamically.     

安徽女山幔源橄榄岩捕虏体Re-Os 同位素地球化学

Re-Os同位素体系可以为研究大陆岩石圈地幔形成和演化提供重要制约.女山12个地幔橄榄岩全岩样品测得Re含量为19×10-12~306×10-12,Os含量为0.81×10-9~2.42×10-9,187Os/188Os比值为0.114 90~0.131 02,187Re/188Os比值为0.037~1.517.两个石榴子石-尖晶石二辉橄榄岩的Os同位素组成与原始上地幔(PUM)的现代值0.129 6相似,其余的尖晶石二辉橄榄岩、方辉橄榄岩,和角闪石、金云母-尖晶石二辉橄榄岩等的Os同位素组成都低于PUM现代值,Os同位素模式年龄为早元古代.实性和隐性地幔交代作用对女山幔源橄榄岩捕虏体的Os同位素组成没有明显影响.橄榄岩捕虏体代表的女山地区岩石圈地幔是元古代岩石圈地幔经过减薄作用后的残留部分.橄榄岩中Re-Os体系扰动是近期事件.