俄罗斯科研创新发展分析

从研发投入、研发机构和研发人员等角度分析了俄罗斯创新发展态势,结果显示:俄罗斯研发经费主要依靠国家支持,其它资金来源缺乏活力,研发机构以及研发人员数量呈下降趋势,不利于科研创新的可持续发展。俄罗斯政府为有效刺激国内创新需求,营造良好的创新环境,采取了一系列措施,并确定了16项科学优先发展方向,这将促使俄罗斯提高现有科研基础设施的利用效率,为创新发展奠定良好的基础。然而,优化国家创新体系不是一朝一夕可以实现的,俄罗斯创新发展之路仍然任重道远。     

俄罗斯国家科技基础与普京政府科技政策价值取向

人类社会在经历了漫长的农业经济和工业经济时代后,随着21世纪的到来即将进入知识经济时代,从前苏联到俄罗斯曾奠定了无愧于这一新时代的科技基础,将会成为攻占未来世界市场制高点的一支劲旅。普京政府在这方面充满信心,并且以重振大国雄风为目标而采取了积极推进的科技政策,其价值取向是在科技开发中实际国际化、市场化、产业化和法制化,不断加大本国经济在国际社会的影响力、竞争力、辐射力和吸引力。除此之外,根据中俄两国战略协作伙伴关系的发展要求,双方正在努力使科技合作成为这一关系的题中应有之义,共同开发新项目,改造传统产业,发展宇航业,加强军领域合作,开展人才交流与培训,大力发展教育事业,以科技合作来提升经贸合作水平,进而实现两国经贸合作战略升级的宏大目标争取到2020年使双边经贸额度达到1000亿美元,届时将与中美、中日之间的贸易额度基本持平,为建立世界新秩序作出贡献。     

The introduction of the differential notation to Great Britain

In the history of chemistry, the Danish chemist Julius Thomsen (1826–1909) is best known for his contributions to thermochemistry. Throughout his life, he was a pronounced atomist and a tireless advocate of neo-Proutian views as to the constitution of matter. On many occasions, especially in his later years, he engaged in speculations concerning the unity of matter and the complexity of atoms. In this engagement, Thomsen was alone in Danish chemistry, but his works were representative of a large number of 19th-century chemists, particularly in England and Germany. Thomsen's ideas as to the constitution of matter, the periodic system and the noble gases, may be seen as typical of this vigorous trend in fin de siècle chemistry.     

From 'beastly philosophy' to medical genetics: eugenics in Russia and the Soviet Union

This essay offers an overview of the three distinct periods in the development of Russian eugenics: Imperial (1900-1917), Bolshevik (1917-1929), and Stalinist (1930-1939). Began during the Imperial era as a particular discourse on the issues of human heredity, diversity, and evolution, in the early years of the Bolshevik rule eugenics was quickly institutionalized as a scientific discipline--complete with societies, research establishments, and periodicals--that aspired an extensive grassroots following, generated lively public debates, and exerted considerable influence on a range of medical, public health, and social policies. In the late 1920s, in the wake of Joseph Stalin's 'Great Break', eugenics came under intense critique as a 'bourgeois' science and its proponents quickly reconstituted their enterprise as 'medical genetics'. Yet, after a brief period of rapid growth during the early 1930s, medical genetics was dismantled as a 'fascist science' towards the end of the decade. Based on published and original research, this essay examines the factors that account for such an unusual--as compared to the development of eugenics in other locales during the same period--historical trajectory of Russian eugenics.     

Antony van Leeuwenhoek's microscopes and other scientific instruments: new information from the Delft archives

This paper discusses the scientific instruments made and used by the microscopist Antony van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723). The immediate cause of our study was the discovery of an overlooked document from the Delft archive: an inventory of the possessions that were left in 1745 after the death of Leeuwenhoek's daughter Maria. This list sums up which tools and scientific instruments Leeuwenhoek possessed at the end of his life, including his famous microscopes. This information, combined with the results of earlier historical research, gives us new insights about the way Leeuwenhoek began his lens grinding and how eventually he made his best lenses. It also teaches us more about Leeuwenhoek's work as a surveyor and a wine gauger.

A further investigation of the 1747 sale of Leeuwenhoek's 531 single lens microscopes has not only led us to the identification of nearly all buyers, but also has provided us with some explanation about why only a dozen of this large number of microscopes has survived.     

新疆阿尔泰克朗盆地热液成矿时代的裂变径迹分析

应用裂变径迹技术研究成矿作用是一种新尝试。新疆克朗盆地各个矿区成矿流体包裹体均一温度变化于105~294℃,与锆石和磷灰石裂变径迹封闭温度基本一致,所以,裂变径迹方法用于可以应用于成矿作用研究。本文获得不同矿区6个锆石和17个磷灰石裂变径迹分析结果,其中锆石年龄为134 Ma~312 Ma,分属312 Ma,247Ma和158~134 Ma三个年龄组,是3个成矿期的体现;磷灰石年龄为30~130 Ma,是区内成矿作用结束后的热事件时代。因此,成矿作用不仅发生于海西期和印支期,而且发生于燕山期甚至喜山期。     

Scientific authorship in the age of collaborative research

I examine two challenges that collaborative research raises for science. First, collaborative research threatens the motivation of scientists. As a result, I argue, collaborative research may have adverse effects on what sorts of things scientists can effectively investigate. Second, collaborative research makes it more difficult to hold scientists accountable. I argue that the authors of multi-authored articles are aptly described as plural subjects, corporate bodies that are more than the sum of the individuals involved. Though journal editors do not currently conceive of the authors of multi-authored articles this way, this conception provides us with the conceptual resources to make sense of how collaborating scientists behave.     

突破科技成果转化障碍的主要对策

我国科技成果转化率低，是制约科技转化为现实生产力的瓶颈。解决这一问题，是一个因素复杂、难度极大的系统工程。本文就突破技术成果转化障碍提出了若干对策。     

The Development of Telescope Optics in the Middle of the Seventeenth Century

The author performed optical tests on four telescopes dating from the first half of the seventeenth century and on four objective lenses made by the Italian optician Giuseppe Campani. These tests consisted of the method of Ronchi and of the highly sensitive method of Foucault on an optical bench. The two incomplete surviving telescopes in Skokloster made by Wiesel have been reconstructed and compared with a telescope made by Divini and a telescope made by Campani. The contributions of Schyrl de Rheita and Johannes Wiesel to the development of the telescope, and the influence of their new methods upon the opticians of the second half of the seventeenth century, especially Giuseppe Campani, are discussed.     

On the Telescopic Disks of Stars: A Review and Analysis of Stellar Observations from the Early Seventeenth through the Middle Nineteenth Centuries

During the Second Industrial revolution, consulting professor bridged higher education institutions with industry and government. A concept like the utilitarian research regime by Terry Shinn can explain their material and intellectual production by allowing for a reconstruction of their social networks. Pierre‐Paul LeCointe (d. 1948) and Louis Bourgoin (1891–1951), associates in an engineering consultancy office, institutionalised a consultation service at the Laboratory of Industrial Chemistry of the École Polytechnique of Montreal (1917). The two industrial chemists were thereby able to obtain financial, material and human resources through exchanges with industrialists, business men and civil servants; consequently, their material and intellectual production is marked by the preoccupations of the industries and government with whom they exchanged. Industrial development in Canada was, in part, based on the work of these consultants who helped private companies analyse primary resources, standardize fabrication procedures and adapt the production to regulations. The government also offered technological assistance to businesses thanks to consultants, while regulating the markets and producing industrial standards. The inception of a utilitarian research regime results from the conjunction of these different factors. Finally, on Bourgoin's initiative, the École Polytechnique created a research centre (1946) based on the model of consulting laboratories.     

Impulse propagation from the SA-node to the ventricles

Normally the pacemaker of the mammalian heart is located in the sinus node. In the rabbit the sinus node can be subdivided into two regions, the center of the node where the impulse originates and the border zone through which the impulse is conducted towards the atrium. Conduction properties of both regions were investigated. It appeared that conduction velocity increases and refractoriness decreases when one goes from the nodal center towards the atrium. The tissue mass of the atrium is large in comparison to the sinus node and normally the resting membrane potential of atrial fibers is more negative than that of nodal fibers; consequently, a potential difference exists causing a current flow between both areas. Evidently this hyperpolarizing current flow depresses impulse formation in the border zone fibers which have better intrinsic pacemaker properties than fibers in the nodal center. If the impulse has reached the atrium it is conducted with a relatively high safety factor and will reach the AV node in principle without difficulty. The AV node, if deprived of sinus nodal dominance, develops spontaneous activity originating from the lower nodal fibers. Also in this structure, electrotonic depression by surrounding tissue causes deceleration of the pacemaker.     

Impulse propagation from the SA-node to the ventricles

Summary Normally the pacemaker of the mammalian heart is located in the sinus node. In the rabbit the sinus node can be subdivided into two regions, the center of the node where the impulse originates and the border zone through which the impulse is conducted towards the atrium. Conduction properties of both regions were investigated. It appeared that conduction velocity increases and refractoriness decreases when one goes from the nodal center towards the atrium. The tissue mass of the atrium is large in comparison to the sinus node and normally the resting membrane potential of atrial fibers is more negative than that of nodal fibers; consequently, a potential difference exists causing a current flow between both areas. Evidently this hyperpolarizing current flow depresses impulse formation in the border zone fibers which have better intrinsic pacemaker properties than fibers in the nodal center. If the impulse has reached the atrium it is conducted with a relatively high safety factor and will reach the AV node in principle without difficulty. The AV node, if deprived of sinus nodal dominance, develops spontaneous activity originating from the lower nodal fibers. Also in this structure, electrotonic depression by surrounding tissue causes deceleration of the pacemaker.